One of the select students with an IQ above whom Terman studied at Stanford, Clara was Harlow's student before becoming romantically involved with him. The couple had two children together, Robert and Richard. Harlow and Mears divorced in That same year, Harlow married child psychologist Margaret Kuenne. They had two children together, Pamela and Jonathan. Margaret died on 11 August , after a prolonged struggle with cancer , with which she had been diagnosed in The couple lived together in Tucson, Arizona until Harlow's death in Harlow came to the University of Wisconsin—Madison in [9] after obtaining his doctorate under the guidance of several distinguished researchers, including Calvin Stone and Lewis Terman, at Stanford University.
He began his career with nonhuman primate research. It was through these studies that Harlow discovered that the monkeys he worked with were developing strategies for his tests. What would later become known as learning sets, Harlow described as "learning to learn.
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In order to study the development of these learning sets, Harlow needed access to developing primates, so he established a breeding colony of rhesus macaques in Due to the nature of his study, Harlow needed regular access to infant primates and thus chose to rear them in a nursery setting, rather than with their protective mothers. Research with and caring for infant rhesus monkeys further inspired Harlow, and ultimately led to some of his best-known experiments: Although Harlow, his students, contemporaries, and associates soon learned how to care for the physical needs of their infant monkeys, the nursery-reared infants remained very different from their mother-reared peers.
Psychologically speaking, these infants were slightly strange: Noticing their attachment to the soft cloth of their diapers and the psychological changes that correlated with the absence of a maternal figure, Harlow sought to investigate the mother—infant bond. Skinner and the behaviorists took on John Bowlby in a discussion of the mother's importance in the development of the child, the nature of their relationship, and the impact of physical contact between mother and child.
In , his colleague, James Robertson , produced a short and controversial documentary film, titled A Two-Year-Old Goes to Hospital, demonstrating the almost-immediate effects of maternal separation. Bowlby de-emphasized the mother's role in feeding as a basis for the development of a strong mother—child relationship, but his conclusions generated much debate.
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It was the debate concerning the reasons behind the demonstrated need for maternal care that Harlow addressed in his studies with surrogates. Physical contact with infants was considered harmful to their development, and this view led to sterile, contact-less nurseries across the country. Bowlby disagreed, claiming that the mother provides much more than food to the infant, including a unique bond that positively influences the child's development and mental health.
To investigate the debate, Harlow created inanimate surrogate mothers for the rhesus infants from wire and wood. Overwhelmingly, the infant macaques preferred spending their time clinging to the cloth mother. Harlow concluded that there was much more to the mother—infant relationship than milk, and that this "contact comfort" was essential to the psychological development and health of infant monkeys and children.
It was this research that gave strong, empirical support to Bowlby's assertions on the importance of love and mother—child interaction. Successive experiments concluded that infants used the surrogate as a base for exploration, and a source of comfort and protection in novel and even frightening situations. When the infant's surrogate mother was present, it clung to her, but then began venturing off to explore.
If frightened, the infant ran back to the surrogate mother and clung to her for a time before venturing out again. Without the surrogate mother's presence, the monkeys were paralyzed with fear, huddling in a ball and sucking their thumbs. In the "fear test", infants were presented with a fearful stimulus, often a noise-making teddy bear. When the surrogate mother was present, however, the infant did not show great fearful responses and often contacted the device—exploring and attacking it. Another study looked at the differentiated effects of being raised with only either a wire-mother or a cloth-mother.
Harlow's interpretation of this behavior, which is still widely accepted, was that a lack of contact comfort is psychologically stressful to the monkeys, and the digestive problems are a physiological manifestation of that stress. The importance of these findings is that they contradicted both the traditional pedagogic advice of limiting or avoiding bodily contact in an attempt to avoid spoiling children, and the insistence of the predominant behaviorist school of psychology that emotions were negligible.
Feeding was thought to be the most important factor in the formation of a mother—child bond. Harlow concluded, however, that nursing strengthened the mother—child bond because of the intimate body contact that it provided. He described his experiments as a study of love. He also believed that contact comfort could be provided by either mother or father.
Though widely accepted now, this idea was revolutionary at the time in provoking thoughts and values concerning the studies of love. Some of Harlow's final experiments explored social deprivation in the quest to create an animal model for the study of depression. This study is the most controversial, and involved isolation of infant and juvenile macaques for various periods of time. Monkeys placed in isolation exhibited social deficits when introduced or re-introduced into a peer group.
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They appeared unsure of how to interact with their conspecifics , and mostly stayed separate from the group, demonstrating the importance of social interaction and stimuli in forming the ability to interact with conspecifics in developing monkeys, and, comparatively, in children.
Critics of Harlow's research have observed that clinging is a matter of survival in young rhesus monkeys, but not in humans, and have suggested that his conclusions, when applied to humans, overestimate the importance of contact comfort and underestimate the importance of nursing. Harlow first reported the results of these experiments in "The Nature of Love", the title of his address to the sixty-sixth Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association in Washington, D. Beginning in , Harlow and his students began publishing their observations on the effects of partial and total social isolation.
Partial isolation involved raising monkeys in bare wire cages that allowed them to see, smell, and hear other monkeys, but provided no opportunity for physical contact. Total social isolation involved rearing monkeys in isolation chambers that precluded any and all contact with other monkeys. These monkeys were then observed in various settings. For the study, some of the monkeys were kept in solitary isolation for 15 years. In the total isolation experiments, baby monkeys would be left alone for three, six, 12, or 24 [20] [21] months of "total social deprivation".
The experiments produced monkeys that were severely psychologically disturbed. No monkey has died during isolation. When initially removed from total social isolation, however, they usually go into a state of emotional shock, characterized by One of six monkeys isolated for 3 months refused to eat after release and died 5 days later. The autopsy report attributed death to emotional anorexia.
The effects of 6 months of total social isolation were so devastating and debilitating that we had assumed initially that 12 months of isolation would not produce any additional decrement. This assumption proved to be false; 12 months of isolation almost obliterated the animals socially Harlow tried to reintegrate the monkeys who had been isolated for six months by placing them with monkeys who had been raised normally. Harlow wrote that total social isolation for the first six months of life produced "severe deficits in virtually every aspect of social behavior".
Since Harlow's pioneering work on touch research in development, recent work in rats has found evidence that touch during infancy resulted in a decrease in corticosteroid , a steroid hormone involved in stress, and an increase in glucocorticoid receptors in many regions of the brain.
Investigators have measured a direct, positive relationship between the amount of contact and grooming an infant monkey receives during its first six months of life, and its ability to produce antibody titer IgG and IgM in response to an antibody challenge tetanus at a little over one year of age. Touch deprivation may cause stress-induced activation of the pituitary—adrenal system , which, in turn, leads to increased plasma cortisol and adrenocorticotropic hormone.
Likewise, researchers suggest, regular and "natural" stimulation of the skin may moderate these pituitary—adrenal responses in a positive and healthful way. Harlow was well known for refusing to use conventional terminology, instead choosing deliberately outrageous terms for the experimental apparatus he devised. This came from an early conflict with the conventional psychological establishment in which Harlow used the term "love" in place of the popular and archaically correct term, "attachment".
Such terms and respective devices included a forced-mating device he called the "rape rack", tormenting surrogate-mother devices he called " Iron maidens ", and an isolation chamber he called the " pit of despair ", developed by him and a graduate student, Stephen Suomi. In the last of these devices, alternatively called the "well of despair", baby monkeys were left alone in darkness for up to one year from birth, or repetitively separated from their peers and isolated in the chamber.
These procedures quickly produced monkeys that were severely psychologically disturbed, and used as models of human depression. Harlow tried to rehabilitate monkeys that had been subjected to varying degrees of isolation using various forms of therapy. Today, we are psychiatrists trying to achieve normality and equanimity.
Many of Harlow's experiments are now considered unethical —in their nature as well as Harlow's descriptions of them—and they both contributed to heightened awareness of the treatment of laboratory animals, and helped propel the creation of today's ethics regulations. The monkeys in the experiment were deprived of maternal affection, potentially leading to what humans refer to as "panic disorders". William Mason, another one of Harlow's students who continued conducting deprivation experiments after leaving Wisconsin, [33] has said that Harlow "kept this going to the point where it was clear to many people that the work was really violating ordinary sensibilities, that anybody with respect for life or people would find this offensive.
It's as if he sat down and said, 'I'm only going to be around another ten years. What I'd like to do, then, is leave a great big mess behind. Stephen Suomi , a former Harlow student who now conducts maternal deprivation experiments on monkeys at the National Institutes of Health , has been criticized by PETA and members of the U. Yet another of Harlow's students, Leonard Rosenblum, also went on to conduct maternal deprivation experiments with bonnet and pigtail macaque monkeys, and other research, involving exposing monkeys to drug—maternal-deprivation combinations in an attempt to "model" human panic disorder.
Rosenblum's research, and his justifications for it, have also been criticized. A theatrical play, The Harry Harlow Project , based on the life and work of Harlow, has been produced in Victoria and performed nationally in Australia. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection.
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Perseus Publishing, , p. Review of General Psychology. Explicit use of et al. Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection". It's a very good book, but quite depressing, with some uncomfortably graphic moments. Apr 05, Brielle Boulanger rated it it was amazing. I really loved this book. Loved the writing and the disturbing back stories of the characters. I'll definitely be looking out for more Massie novels.
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It becomes a nightmare. How could she know she was driving headlong into a nightmare? The nightmare began when Tony jumped into the passenger seat of Kate's car, waving a gun. Tony was a dangerous girl, more dangerous than anyone could have dreamed. She didn't admire anything except violence and cruelty, and she had very different plans in mind for Kate and little Mistie.
The cross-country trip that followed would turn into a one-way journey to fear, desperation Published by Crossroad Press.