More recent research based on new readings and interpretations of the Hittite texts, as well as of the material evidence for Mycenaean contacts with the Anatolian mainland, came to the conclusion that Ahhiyawa referred to Mycenaean Greece , or at least to a part of it.
Hittite prosperity was mostly dependent on control of the trade routes and metal sources. Because of the importance of Northern Syria to the vital routes linking the Cilician gates with Mesopotamia, defense of this area was crucial, and was soon put to the test by Egyptian expansion under Pharaoh Ramesses II.
The outcome of the battle is uncertain, though it seems that the timely arrival of Egyptian reinforcements prevented total Hittite victory. This battle took place in the 5th year of Ramesses c. After this date, the power of both the Hittites and Egyptians began to decline yet again because of the power of the Assyrians. The Hittites had vainly tried to preserve the Mitanni kingdom with military support. In response to increasing Assyrian annexation of Hittite territory, he concluded a peace and alliance with Ramesses II also fearful of Assyria , presenting his daughter's hand in marriage to the Pharaoh.
Terms of this treaty included the marriage of one of the Hittite princesses to Ramesses. Hattusili's son, Tudhaliya IV , was the last strong Hittite king able to keep the Assyrians out of the Hittite heartland to some degree at least, though he too lost much territory to them, and was heavily defeated by Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyria in the Battle of Nihriya. He even temporarily annexed the Greek island of Cyprus , before that too fell to Assyria. The very last king, Suppiluliuma II also managed to win some victories, including a naval battle against Alashiya off the coast of Cyprus.
The Sea Peoples had already begun their push down the Mediterranean coastline, starting from the Aegean , and continuing all the way to Canaan, founding the state of Philistia —taking Cilicia and Cyprus away from the Hittites en route and cutting off their coveted trade routes. This left the Hittite homelands vulnerable to attack from all directions, and Hattusa was burnt to the ground sometime around BC following a combined onslaught from new waves of invaders, the Kaskas , Phrygians and Bryges. The Hittite Kingdom thus vanished from historical records, much of the territory being seized by Assyria.
By BC, the political situation in Asia Minor looked vastly different from that of only 25 years earlier. In that year, the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser I was defeating the Mushku Phrygians who had been attempting to press into Assyrian colonies in southern Anatolia from the Anatolian highlands, and the Kaska people, the Hittites' old enemies from the northern hill-country between Hatti and the Black Sea, seem to have joined them soon after. The Phrygians had apparently overrun Cappadocia from the West, with recently discovered epigraphic evidence confirming their origins as the Balkan "Bryges" tribe, forced out by the Macedonians.
Although the Hittite kingdom disappeared from Anatolia at this point, there emerged a number of so-called Neo-Hittite kingdoms in Anatolia and northern Syria. They were the successors of the Hittite Kingdom. A large and powerful state known as Tabal occupied much of southern Anatolia.
Tibareni, Thobeles in Josephus, their language may have been Luwian , [53] testified to by monuments written using Luwian hieroglyphics. Ultimately, both Luwian hieroglyphs and cuneiform were rendered obsolete by an innovation, the alphabet , which seems to have entered Anatolia simultaneously from the Aegean with the Bryges, who changed their name to Phrygians , and from the Phoenicians and neighboring peoples in Syria. The head of the Hittite state was the king, followed by the heir-apparent.
The king was the supreme ruler of the land, in charge of being a military commander, judicial authority, as well as a high priest. One of the most important of these posts in the Hittite society was that of the Gal Mesedi Chief of the Royal Bodyguards.
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The kingdom's bureaucracy was headed by the Gal Dubsar Chief of the Scribes , whose authority didn't extend over the Lugal Dubsar , the king's personal scribe. In Egyptian inscriptions dating back before the days of the Exodus , Egyptian monarchs were engaged with two chief seats, located at Kadesh a Hittite city located on the Orontes River and Carchemish located on the Euphrates river in Southern Anatolia. In the Central Anatolian settlement of Ankuwa , home of the pre-Hittite goddess Kattaha and the worship of other Hattic deities illustrates the ethnic differences in the areas the Hittites tried to control.
Kattaha was originally given the name Hannikkun. The usage of the term Kattaha over Hannikkun, according to Ronald Gorny head of the Alisar regional project in Turkey , was a device to downgrade the Pre-Hittite identity of this female deity, and to bring her more in touch with the Hittite tradition. Their reconfiguration of Gods throughout their early history such as with Kattaha was a way of legitimizing their authority and to avoid conflicting ideologies in newly included regions and settlements.
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By transforming local deities to fit their own customs, the Hittites hoped that the traditional beliefs of these communities would understand and accept the changes to become better suited for the Hittite political and economic goals. Due to fear of revolts at home he did not remain there long, quickly returning to his capital of Hattusa. On his journey back to Hattusa he was assassinated by his brother-in-law Hantili I who then took the throne. Hantili was able to escape multiple murder attempts on himself, however, his family did not.
His wife, Harapsili and her son were murdered. In addition, other members of the royal family were killed by Zindata I who was then murdered by his own son, Ammunna. All of the internal unrest among the Hittite royal family led to a decline of power. This led to surrounding kingdoms, such as the Hurrians, to have success against Hittite forces and be the center of power in the Anatolian region. King Telipinus reigned c.
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He seized power during a dynastic power struggle. During his reign, he wanted to take care of lawlessness and regulate royal succession. He then issued the Edict of Telipinus. Within this edict, he designated the pankus, which was a "general assembly" that acted as a high court. Crimes such as murder were observed and judged by the Pankus.
Kings were also subject to jurisdiction under the Pankus. The Pankus also served as an advisory council for the king. The rules and regulations set out by the Edict and the establishment of the Pankus proved to be very successful and lasted all the way through to the new Kingdom in the 14th century BC. The Pankus established a legal code where violence was not a punishment for a crime. Crimes such as a murder and theft, which were punishable by death in other southwest Asian Kingdoms at this time, were not under the Hittite law code.
Most penalties for crimes involved restitution. For example, in cases of thievery, the punishment of that crime would to be to repay what was stolen in equal value. It remained in use until about BC. Hittite is the best attested member of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family , and the Indo-European language for which the earliest surviving written attestation exists, with isolated Hittite loanwords and numerous personal names appearing in an Old Assyrian context from as early as the 20th century BC. The decipherment famously led to the confirmation of the laryngeal theory in Indo-European linguistics, which had been predicted several decades before.
Due to its marked differences in its structure and phonology, some early philologists , most notably Warren Cowgill had even argued that it should be classified as a sister language to Indo-European languages Indo-Hittite , rather than a daughter language. By the end of the Hittite Empire, the Hittite language had become a written language of administration and diplomatic correspondence. The population of most of the Hittite Empire by this time spoke Luwian dialects, another Indo-European language of the Anatolian family that had originated to the west of the Hittite region.
According to Craig Melchert , the current tendency is to suppose that Proto-Indo-European evolved, and that the "prehistoric speakers" of Anatolian became isolated "from the rest of the PIE speech community, so as not to share in some common innovations. In Hittite there are many loanwords, particularly religious vocabulary, from the non-Indo-European Hurrian and Hattic languages.
The latter was the language of the Hattians , the local inhabitants of the land of Hatti before being absorbed or displaced by the Hittites. Sacred and magical texts from Hattusa were often written in Hattic, Hurrian , and Luwian , even after Hittite became the norm for other writings. Given the size of the empire, there are relatively few remains of Hittite art. Unfortunately, nearly all are notably worn. Rock reliefs include the Hanyeri relief , and Hemite relief.
Hittite religion and mythology were heavily influenced by their Hattic , Mesopotamian , and Hurrian counterparts. In earlier times, Indo-European elements may still be clearly discerned. Storm gods were prominent in the Hittite pantheon. He was chief among the gods and his symbol is the bull.
As Teshub he was depicted as a bearded man astride two mountains and bearing a club.
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He was the god of battle and victory, especially when the conflict involved a foreign power. Hittite laws, much like other records of the empire, are recorded on cuneiform tablets made from baked clay. What is understood to be the Hittite Law Code comes mainly from two clay tablets, each containing articles, and are a collection of practiced laws from across the early Hittite Kingdom. These changes could possibly be attributed to the rise of new and different kings throughout the history empire or to the new translations that change the language used in the law codes.
The law articles used by the Hittites most often outline very specific crimes or offenses, either against the state or against other individuals, and provide a sentence for these offenses. The laws carved in the tablets are an assembly of established social conventions from across the empire. Hittite laws at this time have a prominent lack of equality in punishments In many cases, distinct punishments or compensations for men and women are listed.
Slaves, male or female, had very little rights, and could easily be punished or executed by their masters for crimes. Again, in these cases men often times receive a greater amount of compensation than women. In any case of separation or estrangement, the free individual, male or female, would keep all but one child that resulted from the marriage. Cases in which capital punishment is recommended in the articles most often seem to come from pre-reform sentences for severe crimes and prohibited sexual pairings.
Many of these cases include public torture and execution as punishment for serious crimes against religion. Most of these sentences would begin to go away in the later stages of the Hittite Empire as major law reforms began to occur. While different translations of laws can be seen throughout the history of the empire, [70] the Hittite outlook of law was originally founded on religion and were intended to preserve the authority of the state. Capital punishment and torture are specifically mentioned as punishment for more severe crimes against religion and harsh fines for the loss of private property of life.
The tablets also describe the ability of the king to pardon certain crimes, but specifically prohibit an individual being pardoned for murder. At some point in the 16th or 15th century BC, Hittite law codes move away from torture and capital punishment and to more humanitarian forms of punishments, such as fines. Where major fines were to be paid, a severe reduction in penalty can be seen.
For example, prior to these major reforms, the payment to be made for the theft of an animal was thirty times the animal's value; after the reforms, the penalty was reduced to half the original fine. Simultaneously, attempts to modernize the language and change the verbiage used in the law codes can be seen during this period of reform. Under both the old and reformed Hittite law codes, three main types of punishment can be seen: In many, but not all cases, articles describing similar laws are grouped together.
More than a dozen consecutive articles describe what are known to be permitted and prohibited sexual pairings. These include incestuous marriages and sexual relations with certain animals. These actions could include the destruction of farmlands, death or injury of livestock, or assault of an individual.
If an animal were to die by certain circumstances, the individual could claim that it died by the hand of a god. Swearing that what they claim was true, it seems that they were exempt from paying compensation to the animal's owner. Not all laws prescribed in the tablets deal with criminal punishment. For example, the instructions of how the marriage of slaves and division of their children are given in a group of articles, "The slave woman shall take most of the children, with the male slave taking one child.
Other actions include how breaking of engagements are to be handled. Genesis 10 the Generations of Noah links them to an eponymous ancestor Heth, a descendant of Ham through his son, Canaan. The Hittites are thereby counted among the Canaanites. The Hittites are usually depicted as a people living among the Israelites—Abraham purchases the Patriarchal burial-plot of Machpelah from "Ephron HaChiti", Ephron the Hittite; and Hittites serve as high military officers in David 's army.
In 2 Kings 7: It is a matter of considerable scholarly debate whether the biblical "Hittites" signified any or all of: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Not to be confused with Hattians. The Hittite Empire, c. Part of a series on the. Classical Anatolia Classical Thrace. Periods of Ottoman Empire. Scholars Marija Gimbutas J. Ancient Near East portal.
Trustees of the British Museum. Retrieved 7 November Hittites, Ottomans and Turks: Texier and containing drawings of bas-reliefs discovered by him near the village of Bogaz-Keui [now: Journal des Savants in French: Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture. Retrieved 24 March Journal of Indo-European Studies. The puzzle of Indo-European Origins".
Retrieved 1 May University of Texas at Austin: College of Liberal Arts. Archived from the original on 12 April Retrieved 12 April London and New York: Retrieved 9 May The World of Ancient Times. Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery.
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The Kingdom of the Hittites. Writings from the Ancient World: Wahiti walikuwa wakazi wa Anatolia leo nchini Uturuki ambao mwaka KK hivi walianzisha dola lenye makao makuu huko Hattusa. Dola lilifikia kilele cha ustawi wake katikati ya karne ya 14 KK walipotawala sehemu kubwa ya Uturuki wa leo pamoja na Siria , Lebanoni na Iraq kaskazini.
Kijeshi walifaidika sana na matumizi ya magari ya vita ya kukokotwa na farasi. Lugha yao ilikuwa mojawapo ya lugha za Kihindi-Kiulaya. Katika Biblia wanazungumziwa mara kadhaa wakiwa na uhusiano mwema na Waisraeli. Kutoka Wikipedia, kamusi elezo huru. The Discovery of an Ancient Empire.
History, Historiography and Interpretation: The Kingdom of the Hittites. Wikimedia Commons ina media kuhusu: