In fact, little research has attended to the nature of rivalry in early, middle, or late adulthood. As mentioned earlier, many adult siblings feel close to and often provide support to one another, and the developmental tasks of emerging and middle adulthood, including identity development and a focus on the world beyond the family, may serve to reduce rivalry and increase feelings of closeness, at least for some dyads. Longitudinal data on sibling relationships from childhood through early to late adulthood are needed, however, to describe such relationships and to understand how sibling rivalry and conflict change over time.
Social psychologists also are interested in group processes, including social norms, social roles, and social interaction dynamics. Despite their relevance to sibling relationships, however, social psychological theories have rarely been applied in studies of siblings. One perspective of special relevance to sibling dynamics is social comparison theory. Proposed by Leon Festinger in the s and reminiscent of Adlerian principles, social comparison theory holds that individuals are intrinsically motivated to evaluate themselves based on how they measure up against others, particularly others whom they perceive as like themselves Festinger, Given their shared family background and experiences, siblings are clear targets for social comparison, and indeed, theories about sibling rivalry, described earlier, assume that siblings engage extensively in social comparisons, such as about how their parents treat them versus their sisters and brothers.
There are only a handful of studies that directly assess social comparison processes in siblings. Feinberg, Neiderhiser, Simmens, Reiss, and Hetherington found that social comparison processes depended on birth order, with older siblings more likely to make downward comparisons and younger siblings more likely to make upward comparisons.
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Others have noted that the implications of social comparison dynamics depend on factors such as age spacing, whether the domain of comparison is important to the individuals involved, and the nature and history of the sibling relationship e. For example, the negative effects of upward social comparisons are more pronounced when siblings are closer in age and have more conflictual relationships Noller, Conway, et al.
How siblings realize different accomplishments or failures may also have implications for effects of social comparison. For example, in a case study of two families exploring sibling relationship qualities in adulthood, Connidis found that economic inequality was differentially related to sibling relationship quality as a function of the source of economic advancement. In one family, where economic advancement was the result of personal success i.
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In contrast, in a second family where younger siblings were more economically advantaged primarily through marriage and not necessarily personal success, sibling relationships were more positive. Findings like these highlight some of the complexities involved in sibling relationship dynamics, including the multiplicity of factors that interact to influence how brothers and sisters feel about each other. The limited work available, however, suggests that study of social comparison processes may be a fruitful direction for research on sibling relationships across the life span.
As we noted previously, however, it is important to study social comparison processes directly rather than inferring their operation on the basis of patterns of sibling relationship outcomes. From this perspective, individuals track their contributions to and the rewards they derive from their relationship relative to the contributions and rewards of their partners. The more voluntary nature of sibling relationships in adulthood means that equity and exchange theories can be usefully applied to explain differences between sibling dyads that remain close and those with more distant relationships.
One area in which equity theory has been applied is implications for the sibling relationship of how siblings share care for an elderly parent. Consistent with the idea that inequity motivates change, Ingersoll-Dayton et al. These strategies included asking for more assistance, considering personal e. Further in line with equity theory, Ingersoll et al.
In fact, one study showed that when caregiving inequities were too great, sibling relationship dissolution occurred: Strawbridge and Wallhagen found that siblings stopped interacting or even sought legal action against one another when distress over caregiving became intense. Social learning processes are probably the most common set of mechanisms used to explain sibling relationship dynamics, especially the dynamics of child and adolescent siblings.
Research on sibling relationships in childhood and adolescence targets the role of parents, such as when they model effective conflict resolution strategies in their marriage relationship or praise their children for getting along well; or in contrast, when they fail to do either or model decidedly negative behaviors. Siblings also shape their own relationship in the context of their social exchanges, such as by reciprocally reinforcing positive or negative behaviors, and by observing and imitating one another.
Most family contexts provide ample opportunity for these social learning processes to operate. The tenets of observational learning also suggest that members of the family are salient models for social learning. That is, individuals are most likely to imitate models who are warm and nurturant, high in status, and similar to themselves Bandura, For example, family members who are warm and loving and viewed as competent and powerful e.
And as we discuss later in this section, not all of what siblings learn is positive, as they often imitate negative relationship dynamics such as conflict, hostility, and aggression. Social learning principles also imply that modeling processes in sibling relationships vary as a function of the sibling dyad constellation, with older and same-gender siblings more likely to serve as models.
Siblings close in age may be imitated because of their similarity to self, but a larger age gap between siblings also may invest an older sibling with power and high status and thereby promote modeling. Some research on sibling influences has tested the effects of parent and sibling characteristics as potential moderators of observational learning processes, yielding evidence that is congruent with these theoretical principles e.
Given the mixed findings, it is important for future research to continue to examine moderators e. In addition to observational learning processes that occur outside their dyadic exchanges, siblings also can influence their relationship dynamics directly by virtue of their own behaviors in everyday interactions. Coercive cycles are social exchanges involving escalating negativity and reinforcement processes Patterson, As an example of this dynamic in the sibling relationship, siblings may learn to get their own way by increasing their level of hostility and aggression toward a sister or brother during conflict episodes.
When the sister or brother gives in, the aggressive sibling is positively reinforced for escalating negativity and negativity will increase in subsequent episodes , and the sister or brother is negatively reinforced for giving in. Because both siblings also can learn that escalating negativity results in getting their way, sibling relationships have been described as a training ground for aggression Patterson, A growing body of empirical work has tested the tenets of social learning theory in the context of sibling relationships.
In childhood, parental intervention in sibling conflict appears to have a positive impact on sibling relationships. The same positive effects of parental intervention are not found in adolescence; rather, there is some evidence from cross-sectional research that adolescent siblings relationships are more negative in the face of direct parental intervention, possibly because parents continue to intervene in adolescence only when sibling relationships are very poor Kramer et al. Parents also influence sibling relationships when they serve as models in the context of marital interactions and in their dyadic exchanges with their children.
As predicted by social learning theory, troubled marital relationships are generally linked with more hostile parent—child and sibling interactions. In contrast, however, as mentioned earlier, Jenkins found that, in the context of intense marital conflict, some siblings actually grew more intimate, turning to one another for emotional support. Of course, siblings themselves have a major part in shaping their relationships. Siblings also serve as models for one another, a process that may contribute to findings of similarity between siblings in many different domains, including delinquency and aggression e.
Findings on sibling influences must be viewed with caution when studies fail to include information about the larger family environment. For example, siblings often share parental models, and thus it is important to conceptualize and study sibling influences on their relationship in the context of larger family processes. A family systems framework directs attention to the larger context in which sibling relationships develop. The tenets of family systems theory are derived from general systems theory Bertalanffy, In that perspective, families are best understood when studied holistically.
Ideally, subsystems have flexible boundaries that allow for, but are not determined by, influences of other subsystems; furthermore, some boundaries, particularly intergenerational boundaries, such as those between the marital and child subsystems, are more important to maintain than other boundaries, such as those between pairs of siblings. Coalitions in families are subsystems within families with more rigid boundaries and are thought to be a sign of family dysfunction.
A family systems approach also highlights the dynamic nature of family structure and process: Families adapt in response to changes in internal and external needs and circumstances, including the development of individual family members. Although dynamic, families strive to strike a balance between stability and change. Both rigid adherence and continual fluctuations in norms, roles, and activities are thought to characterize dysfunctional families and relationships.
As these ideas about family change imply, families also are open systems—subject to external influences. The microsystem refers to the immediate contexts of everyday life, such as family and neighborhood. Forces at this level can support close and involved sibling relationships, and they can define distinct activity niches for siblings based on their age and gender.
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The mesosystem refers to the connections between microsystem contexts. For example, norms about age and gender segregation may be consistent as siblings move from family and neighborhood to school, or siblings may have to adopt different ways of behaving toward one another in different settings. The exosystem refers to contexts that siblings are not directly engaged in but that have an indirect impact on their relationship by virtue of their effects on the microsystem. Finally, the macrosystem refers to the broader societal context, including political, economic, and cultural forces that affect individuals and family relationships.
For example, by some accounts, the sibling rivalry that is considered central to sibling dynamics in individualistic, Western cultures is not a dominant feature of the dynamics of sibling relationships in Eastern, more communally oriented cultures Nuckolls, The limited research that has tested systems principles provides some insights into family processes that affect sibling relationships. As previously discussed, a number of studies have established links between sibling relationship quality and marital and parent—child subsystems. Consistent with family systems theory, the links appear to be reciprocal, in that sibling relationships affect other subsystems and vice versa Kim et al.
Empirical work supports this idea, as changes in sibling dynamics are observed around the transition to adolescence Kim et al. To date, such family systems processes have not been examined in adult sibling relationships. Forces outside the family also have the potential to impact sibling relationships. Most sibling researchers treat SES as a control variable, and the handful of studies that has explicitly tested the role of SES factors has produced mixed findings: Neighborhood characteristics have not been systematically linked to sibling dynamics; however, Updegraff and Obeidallah found that young adolescents living in neighborhoods with a high number of common play areas e.
Finally, a small but growing body of empirical work has examined how the cultural forces that are part of the macrosystem affect sibling relationships. Research on minority families living in the United States highlights the role of cultural values and experiences in shaping sibling dynamics. For example, familism values i. Cross-cultural research has emphasized the caregiving responsibilities of older siblings and the hierarchical structure of sibling roles in non-Western societies, as well cultural differences in sibling dynamics such as rivalry and competition Maynard, ; Nuckolls, ; Weisner, ; Zukow, Although this body of work is consistent with systemic principles, family and ecological systems processes have remained a challenge to operationalize and thus are not frequently the focus of empirical scrutiny in sibling research or family research, more generally.
The sheer variety of sibling relationship structures may be one deterrent—as one study identified 26 different possible sibling relationship constellations e. Systems perspectives also are limited in their theoretical propositions in the sense of defining specific mechanisms of influence, and thus, bringing relationship dynamics proposed by analytic, social psychological and social learning theories to bear in a family systems framework may be a fruitful research direction.
At the most general level, our review underscores the significance of siblings for understanding family dynamics and systems, and it should stimulate research attention by family scholars to this relatively neglected relationship. The chief principles to emerge from our review are that sibling relationships are similar in important ways to other close relationships in the family.
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First, sibling relationships are multidimensional, and they vary across time and place. As such, we should not expect that a single theoretical perspective can account for the developmental, family, and group differences that have been observed in sibling relationships. Indeed, concepts grounded in each set of perspectives reviewed here, as well as other sociologically grounded frameworks not reviewed here e.
Importantly, as in other close relationships, the processes that affect sibling relationship dynamics operate at a variety of levels, ranging from intrapsychic processes such as attachment and social comparison to relational dynamics such as social learning and more distal forces beyond the family such as sociocultural influences. And, although longitudinal research on sibling relationships is rare, our review suggests that some dynamics may be more influential at particular periods in the life course than others.
This latter issue is ripe for future research and would inform understanding of the development of close relationships across the life span. Another important direction for future sibling research is the design of studies that incorporate analyses of a broader range of influence processes in an effort to illuminate how insights from the various perspectives complement one another. However, a more complete understanding of these links is possible when other psychological and social processes, such as notions of equity and fairness, as proposed by social psychological theories, and sociocultural forces, as proposed by ecological and systemic perspectives, are taken into account.
In this way, research on sibling relationships could serve as a model for studying other kinds of close relationships. Finally, because sibling relationships are the longest-lasting relationship that most individuals share—a quality that makes sibling relationships unique—it is essential that future work examine them over extended periods of time.
Longitudinal research on siblings offers family scholars a window into how family relationships develop and change, as well as the opportunity to understand the multiple processes and contexts that influence these lifelong bonds. McHale, Pennsylvania State University. Anna Soli, Pennsylvania State University. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. J Fam Theory Rev. Author manuscript; available in PMC Jun 1. Whiteman , Susan M. McHale , and Anna Soli. Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer.
See other articles in PMC that cite the published article. Abstract Although siblings are a fixture of family life, research on sibling relationships lags behind that on other family relationships. Attachment theory Grounded in the early writings of John Bowlby e. Social Learning Theories Social learning processes are probably the most common set of mechanisms used to explain sibling relationship dynamics, especially the dynamics of child and adolescent siblings.
Family and Ecological Systems Approaches A family systems framework directs attention to the larger context in which sibling relationships develop. Conclusion At the most general level, our review underscores the significance of siblings for understanding family dynamics and systems, and it should stimulate research attention by family scholars to this relatively neglected relationship. Contributor Information Shawn D. References Abbey C, Dallos R. The experience of the impact of divorce on sibling relationships: Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry. Inequity in social exchange.
Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. The sociology of friendships and kinship. Allen and Unwin; The individual psychology of Alfred Adler. Negative sibling interaction patterns as predictors of later adjustment problems in adolescent and young adult males. Their causes and consequences. Suicide Across The Life Span. Family and Marital Psychotherapy Psychology Revivals.
School Phobia and its Treatment Practical Counselling and Helping. Attachment Across the Life Cycle. Parents and Young Mentally Handicapped Children. Psychology and the Study of Education. Group Work With the Emotionally Disabled. Therapy with Children and Young People. Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy After Child Abuse. How to write a great review. The review must be at least 50 characters long. The title should be at least 4 characters long. Your display name should be at least 2 characters long. At Kobo, we try to ensure that published reviews do not contain rude or profane language, spoilers, or any of our reviewer's personal information.
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Theoretical Perspectives on Sibling Relationships
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