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SQL - Quick Guide

Amazon Rapids Fun stories for kids on the go. Amazon Restaurants Food delivery from local restaurants. The first relational database was released by Relational Software which later came to be known as Oracle. This table is basically a collection of related data entries and it consists of numerous columns and rows.

Remember, a table is the most common and simplest form of data storage in a relational database. Every table is broken up into smaller entities called fields. A field is a column in a table that is designed to maintain specific information about every record in the table. A record is also called as a row of data is each individual entry that exists in a table. A column is a vertical entity in a table that contains all information associated with a specific field in a table.

It is very important to understand that a NULL value is different than a zero value or a field that contains spaces. A field with a NULL value is the one that has been left blank during a record creation. Constraints are the rules enforced on data columns on a table. These are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table.

This ensures the accuracy and reliability of the data in the database. Constraints can either be column level or table level. Column level constraints are applied only to one column whereas, table level constraints are applied to the entire table. Database normalization is the process of efficiently organizing data in a database.

Both these reasons are worthy goals as they reduce the amount of space a database consumes and ensures that data is logically stored. Normalization consists of a series of guidelines that help guide you in creating a good database structure. Normalization guidelines are divided into normal forms; think of a form as the format or the way a database structure is laid out. The aim of normal forms is to organize the database structure, so that it complies with the rules of first normal form, then second normal form and finally the third normal form.

It is your choice to take it further and go to the fourth normal form, fifth normal form and so on, but in general, the third normal form is more than enough. This would help you to compare their basic features. First internal release on 23 rd May It is a very large multi-user based database management system.

Oracle is a relational database management system developed by 'Oracle Corporation'. Oracle works to efficiently manage its resources, a database of information among the multiple clients requesting and sending data in the network. The company changed its name to Relational Software Inc.


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It contained features like concurrency control - multi-version read consistency, etc. The new version focused on better partitioning, easy migration, etc. This is one of the most popular Microsoft products. Microsoft Access is an entry-level database management software. MS Access database is not only inexpensive but also a powerful database for small-scale projects. MS Access has easyto-use intuitive graphical interface. This makes it very convenient to distribute the entire application to another user, who can run it in disconnected environments.

Microsoft Access offers parameterized queries. These queries and Access tables can be referenced from other programs like VB6 and. Microsoft Access is a file server-based database. Unlike the client-server relational database management systems RDBMS , Microsoft Access does not implement database triggers, stored procedures or transaction logging.

SQL is followed by a unique set of rules and guidelines called Syntax. Whereas, MySQL makes difference in table names. So, if you are working with MySQL, then you need to give table names as they exist in the database. SQL Data Type is an attribute that specifies the type of data of any object. Each column, variable and expression has a related data type in SQL. You can use these data types while creating your tables.

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You can choose a data type for a table column based on your requirement. An operator is a reserved word or a character used primarily in an SQL statement's WHERE clause to perform operation s , such as comparisons and arithmetic operations. These Operators are used to specify conditions in an SQL statement and to serve as conjunctions for multiple conditions in a statement. The ANY operator is used to compare a value to any applicable value in the list as per the condition. The NOT operator reverses the meaning of the logical operator with which it is used. This is a negate operator.

An expression is a combination of one or more values, operators and SQL functions that evaluate to a value. You can also use them to query the database for a specific set of data. SQL Boolean Expressions fetch the data based on matching a single value. These expressions are used to perform any mathematical operation in any query. There are several built-in functions like avg , sum , count , etc. Make sure you have the admin privilege before creating any database.

Make sure you have the admin privilege before dropping any database. When you have multiple databases in your SQL Schema, then before starting your operation, you would need to select a database where all the operations would be performed. Creating a basic table involves naming the table and defining its columns and each column's data type.

In this case, you want to create a new table. Then in brackets comes the list defining each column in the table and what sort of data type it is. The syntax becomes clearer with the following example. You can check the complete details at Create Table Using another Table. Here, column1, column2, column3, You may not need to specify the column s name in the SQL query if you are adding values for all the columns of the table. But make sure the order of the values is in the same order as the columns in the table.

You can populate the data into a table through the select statement over another table; provided the other table has a set of fields, which are required to populate the first table. These result tables are called result-sets. If you want to fetch all the fields available in the field, then you can use the following syntax. If the given condition is satisfied, then only it returns a specific value from the table. The following examples would make this concept clear. These two operators are called as the conjunctive operators.

These operators provide a means to make multiple comparisons with different operators in the same SQL statement. You can combine N number of conditions using the AND operator. You can combine N number of conditions using the OR operator. There are two wildcards used in conjunction with the LIKE operator. The percent sign represents zero, one or multiple characters.

What is Database & SQL?

The underscore represents a single number or character. These symbols can be used in combinations. Here, XXXX could be any numeric or string value. Some databases sort the query results in an ascending order by default. Make sure whatever column you are using to sort that column should be in the column-list.

The following code block has an example, which would sort the result in the descending order by NAME. There may be a situation when you have multiple duplicate records in a table. While fetching such records, it makes more sense to fetch only those unique records instead of fetching duplicate records. This would produce the following result, where the salary is coming twice which is a duplicate record from the original table.

Make sure that whatever column you are using to sort, that column should be in the column-list. The following code block has an example, which would sort the result in a descending order by NAME. Also, the remaining Addresses will be sorted in the reverse alphabetical order. Constraints are the rules enforced on the data columns of a table. Constraints could be either on a column level or a table level. The column level constraints are applied only to one column, whereas the table level constraints are applied to the whole table.

Following are some of the most commonly used constraints available in SQL. Some implementations may provide shortcuts for dropping certain constraints. For example, to drop the primary key constraint for a table in Oracle, you can use the following command. Some implementations allow you to disable constraints. Instead of permanently dropping a constraint from the database, you may want to temporarily disable the constraint and then enable it later. Integrity constraints are used to ensure accuracy and consistency of the data in a relational database.

Data integrity is handled in a relational database through the concept of referential integrity. There are many types of integrity constraints that play a role in Referential Integrity RI. These constraints include Primary Key, Foreign Key, Unique Constraints and other constraints which are mentioned above. The SQL Joins clause is used to combine records from two or more tables in a database. A JOIN is a means for combining fields from two tables by using values common to each. However, the most common operator is the equal to symbol. A NULL value in a table is a value in a field that appears to be blank.

A field with a NULL value is a field with no value. The NULL value can cause problems when selecting data. However, because when comparing an unknown value to any other value, the result is always unknown and not included in the results. You can rename a table or a column temporarily by giving another name known as Alias.

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The use of table aliases is to rename a table in a specific SQL statement. The renaming is a temporary change and the actual table name does not change in the database. The column aliases are used to rename a table's columns for the purpose of a particular SQL query. Indexes are special lookup tables that the database search engine can use to speed up data retrieval. Simply put, an index is a pointer to data in a table.

An index in a database is very similar to an index in the back of a book. For example, if you want to reference all pages in a book that discusses a certain topic, you first refer to the index, which lists all the topics alphabetically and are then referred to one or more specific page numbers. Indexes can be created or dropped with no effect on the data.

Creating an index involves the CREATE INDEX statement, which allows you to name the index, to specify the table and which column or columns to index, and to indicate whether the index is in an ascending or descending order. Indexes can also be unique, like the UNIQUE constraint, in that the index prevents duplicate entries in the column or combination of columns on which there is an index. Unique indexes are used not only for performance, but also for data integrity.

A unique index does not allow any duplicate values to be inserted into the table. The basic syntax is as follows. Whether to create a single-column index or a composite index, take into consideration the column s that you may use very frequently in a query's WHERE clause as filter conditions. Should there be only one column used, a single-column index should be the choice. Should there be two or more columns that are frequently used in the WHERE clause as filters, the composite index would be the best choice.

SQL Quick Reference From W3Schools

Implicit indexes are indexes that are automatically created by the database server when an object is created. Indexes are automatically created for primary key constraints and unique constraints. Care should be taken when dropping an index because the performance may either slow down or improve. Although indexes are intended to enhance a database's performance, there are times when they should be avoided. You can also use DROP TABLE command to delete complete table but it would remove complete table structure form the database and you would need to re-create this table once again if you wish you store some data.

A view is nothing more than a SQL statement that is stored in the database with an associated name. A view is actually a composition of a table in the form of a predefined SQL query. A view can contain all rows of a table or select rows from a table.

SQL Quick Reference

A view can be created from one or many tables which depends on the written SQL query to create a view. Restrict access to the data in such a way that a user can see and sometimes modify exactly what they need and no more. Views can be created from a single table, multiple tables or another view. To create a view, a user must have the appropriate system privilege according to the specific implementation. Following is an example for the same. So, if a view satisfies all the above-mentioned rules then you can update that view. The following code block has an example to update the age of Ramesh.