Download e-book Race Relations in the United States, 1960-1980

June 22 — President Kennedy meets with negro leaders in the White House to discuss his civil rights bill and their proposed March on Washington. Kennedy issues Executive Order , extending affirmative action requirements to federally funded construction projects. Johnson LBJ is sworn in as president. Supreme Court rules in Griffin v. Prince Edward County that local authorities have to fund public education. The legislation outlaws segregation in all public transportation, public accomodation, employment, and education. It also prohibited government financial support of any institution or agency practicing Jim Crow.

Malcolm X makes his pilgrimage to Mecca. Upon his return, he forms the Organization of Afro-American Unity. Heart of Atlanta Motel v. The Twenty Fourth Amendment, which eliminates the use of the poll tax in federal elections, is ratified. Sidney Poitier stars in A Patch of Blue , which deals with interracial romance. March 7 — Hosea Williams leads a failed march from Selma to Montgomery, resulting in the beating of marchers by Alabama authorities at the Edmund Pettus Bridge.

March 25 — Viola Liuzzo, a white woman from Detroit, is killed during the Selma campaign. August 6 — LBJ signs the Voting Rights Act into law, guaranteeing negroes the right to vote by providing strict federal enforcement and harsh penalties for racial discrimination in voting and registering voters.

August — The Watts riot in Los Angeles erupts, becoming the most deadly race riot since August 20 — The white northern preacher Jonathan Daniel is killed while participating in ongoing Alabama civil rights activity. September 24 — LBJ issues Executive Order , increasing affirmative action requirements in federally funded construction projects. The Act abolishes race, ancestry, and national origins as factors in the selection of immigrants, increases immigration from , per year to , per year, and makes family relations the primary factor in the selection of immigrants.

The last legal vestiges of Jim Crow are removed. The Voting Rights Act abolishes all forms of legal disenfrancisement and pledged to prosecute illegal disenfrancisement. July — A riot breaks out in Newark, New Jersey, resulting in more than twenty deaths. July 23 — A Black Power conference is held in Newark, stoking the fires of black anger already burning in America. July 24 — H. Rap Brown, national director of SNCC, encourages negroes to burn down the town of Cambridge, Maryland, sparking yet another riot there.

August 30 — Thurgood Marshall is confirmed by the U. Senate as a Justice of the Supreme Court. Mayer , Supreme Court outlaws discrimination in the rental and sale of property. New Kent County Board of Education , Supreme Court rules that freedom of choice plans were not adequate to desegregate schools. February 8 — A massacre at Orangeburg, South Carolina, results in many negro college students being killed or wounded by authorities. February 15 — Cesar Chavez suffers through his day hunger strike to draw attention to the plight of migrant farm workers in California.

March — Kentucky becomes the first state to enact a statewide anti-housing discrimination law. April 11 — LBJ signs the Civil Rights Act of into law, prohibiting discrimination in the sale or rental of housing. November — Indians in San Francisco begin another occupation of Alcatraz Island, this one to last more than a year and a half. March 5 — President Richard M. Nixon creates the Office of Minority Business Enterprise. August 8 — Nixon signs Executive Order , extending affirmative action to all federal government agencies and jobs.

Holmes County effectively desegregates the public schools of Mississippi. March 3 — Whites in Lamar, South Carolina, attack busloads of negro schoolchildren on their way to their newly integrated school. May 29 — The murder conviction of the Black Panther leader Huey Newton is overturned by an appeals court. July 8 — President Richard M. August 7 — Jonathan Jackson leads a holdup and attempted kidnapping in San Rafael, California, courtroom in order to free a negro defendant; the attempt results in a deadly shootout and the prosecution of the Black Panther activist Angela Davis as an accomplice.

August 31 — Philadelphia police raid Black Panther offices and make highly publicized arrests of members. September — Black Panthers hold constitutional convention in Philadelphia and draft a communist constitution for the United States. November 27 — Black Panthers scheduled constitutional ratification convention in Washington, D. December 4 — The Latino labor leader Cesar Chavez is sentenced to jail in California for organizing a lettuce boycott. January 5 — Angela Davis is arraigned on charges of conspiracy in the Jonathan Jackson case.

February 26 — The Black Panther leaders Huey Newton and Eldridge Cleaver disagree in a television debate on the direction of the party, effectively destroying the party. March 25 — President Nixon meets with the Congressional Black Caucus and listens to their grievances. April 20 — U. Supreme Court rules in Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg , that forced busing of students from one school district to another to achieve rational balance is acceptable. May 18 — President Nixon issues a statement rejecting most of the proposals of the Congressional Black Caucus.

June 28 — The U. Supreme Court overturns the conviction of the negro boxer Muhammad Ali for draft evasion in August 25 — The Black Panther and Soledad Brother George Jackson kills five people in an attempt to escape from prison before being gunned down himself. August 30 — Ten school buses are bombed in Pontiac, Michigan, by whites protesting cross-town busing order of federal courts.

March 8 — Congress gives the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission the power to force compliance with all civil rights hiring laws. March 16 — President Nixon makes an address calling on federal courts to halt cross-town busing. April 12 — Benjamin L. Hooks becomes the first negro appointee to the Federal Communications Commission. July 2 — The National Black Network begins operations with 38 radio stations nationwide.

Denver , opens the way for court-ordered busing in the North. Schuman et al, Bradley , Supreme Court rules that schools were local for the purpose of Brown, and further decreed that the liberal judicial test of evidence usually granted in cases involving racial discrimination could not be invoked because suburban schools were not involved. The test of evidence, strict scrutiny, required the defendant school district to carry the burden of proof of nonracial discrimination and not the plaintiff.

January 21 — U. Supreme Court rules in Lau v. Nichols that school districts must provide bilingual education or provide remedial classes in English where needed. June 21 — Federal court orders the city of Boston to begin integrating its public schools. September 12 — School starts in Boston, causing a racial uproar as integration begins. October 9 — President Gerald R. Ford publicly declaims the federal court rulings requiring cross-town busing. June 13 — The city of Jackson, Mississippi, opens integrated public swimming pools for the first time.

July 28 — Congress extends the Voting Rights Act for seven years, adding protecting for Spanish-speaking and other non-English-speaking minorities. December 9 — A federal court gives federal authorities jurisdiction over Boston public schools. October 4 — U. October 25 — A negro activist, the Reverend Clennon King, announces his intention to integrate the Plains Baptist Church, in Georgia, the church attended by the Democratic presidential candidate, Jimmy Carter.

January 31 — Federal courts order the merger of the University of Tennessee Nashville with Tennessee State University to achieve integration. February 22 — U. Supreme Court begins deliberations on University of California Regents v. Bakke , a case alleging reverse discrimination the favoring of minorities over whites in college admissions.

March — Hanafi Muslims in Washington, D. June 27 — The U. Supreme Court rules against forced busing in Dayton Board of Education v. August 29 — Negro leaders meet in New York City to discuss ways to deal with negro urban poverty. Bakke ruling disallows quotas at U. The most important of these was an invasion of Cambodia in to cut off North Vietnamese supply lines to South Vietnam. This led to another round of protests and demonstrations. Students in many universities took to the streets. At Kent State in Ohio, the national guard troops who had been called in to restore order panicked and killed four students.

By the fall of , however, troop strength in Vietnam was below 50, and the military draft, which had caused so much campus discontent, was all but dead. Although American troops departed, the war lingered on into the spring of , when Congress cut off assistance to South Vietnam and North Vietnam consolidated its control over the entire country.

The war left Vietnam devastated, with millions maimed or killed. It also left the United States traumatized. Americans were no longer united by a widely held Cold War consensus, and became wary of further foreign entanglements. Yet as Vietnam wound down, the Nixon administration took historic steps toward closer ties with the major Communist powers. In and , Nixon softened the American stance, eased trading restrictions, and became the first U.

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He held several cordial meetings with Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev in which they agreed to limit stockpiles of missiles, cooperate in space, and ease trading restrictions. The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks SALT culminated in in an arms control agreement limiting the growth of nuclear arsenals and restricting anti-ballistic missile systems. Vice president under Eisenhower before his unsuccessful run for the presidency in , Nixon was seen as among the shrewdest of American politicians.

He simply wanted to manage its programs better. Not opposed to African-American civil rights on principle, he was wary of large federal civil rights bureaucracies. Nonetheless, his administration vigorously enforced court orders on school desegregation even as it courted Southern white voters. Perhaps his biggest domestic problem was the economy.

He inherited both a slowdown from its Vietnam peak under Johnson, and a continuing inflationary surge that had been a by-product of the war. He dealt with the first by becoming the first Republican president to endorse deficit spending as a way to stimulate the economy; the second by imposing wage and price controls, a policy in which the Right had no long-term faith, in Very early on, he faced charges that his re-election committee had managed a break-in at the Watergate building headquarters of the Democratic National Committee and that he had participated in a cover-up.

Special prosecutors and congressional committees dogged his presidency thereafter. Americans faced both shortages, exacerbated in the view of many by over-regulation of distribution, and rapidly rising prices. Even when the embargo ended the next year, prices remained high and affected all areas of American economic life: In , inflation reached 12 percent, causing disruptions that led to even higher unemployment rates.

The unprecedented economic boom America had enjoyed since was grinding to a halt. But this concern was insufficient to quell concerns about the Watergate break-in and the economy. Seeking to energize and enlarge his own political constituency, Nixon lashed out at demonstrators, attacked the press for distorted coverage, and sought to silence his opponents. Instead, he left an unfavorable impression with many who saw him on television and perceived him as unstable.

Nixon probably had not known in advance of the Watergate burglary, but he had tried to cover it up, and had lied to the American people about it. Evidence of his involvement mounted. On July 27, , the House Judiciary Committee voted to recommend his impeachment.

Facing certain ouster from office, he resigned on August 9, His first priority was to restore trust in the government. However, feeling it necessary to head off the spectacle of a possible prosecution of Nixon, he issued a blanket pardon to his predecessor. Although it was perhaps necessary, the move was nonetheless unpopular. In public policy, Ford followed the course Nixon had set. Economic problems remained serious, as inflation and unemployment continued to rise.

Ford first tried to reassure the public, much as Herbert Hoover had done in When that failed, he imposed measures to curb inflation, which sent unemployment above 8 percent. A tax cut, coupled with higher unemployment benefits, helped a bit but the economy remained weak. Perhaps its major manifestation was the Helsinki Accords of , in which the United States and Western European nations effectively recognized Soviet hegemony in Eastern Europe in return for Soviet affirmation of human rights. The agreement had little immediate significance, but over the long run may have made maintenance of the Soviet empire more difficult.

Jimmy Carter, former Democratic governor of Georgia, won the presidency in Portraying himself during the campaign as an outsider to Washington politics, he promised a fresh approach to governing, but his lack of experience at the national level complicated his tenure from the start.

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A naval officer and engineer by training, he often appeared to be a technocrat, when Americans wanted someone more visionary to lead them through troubled times. In economic affairs, Carter at first permitted a policy of deficit spending. Inflation rose to 10 percent a year when the Federal Reserve Board, responsible for setting monetary policy, increased the money supply to cover deficits.

Carter responded by cutting the budget, but cuts affected social programs at the heart of Democratic domestic policy.



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In mid, anger in the financial community practically forced him to appoint Paul Volcker as chairman of the Federal Reserve. Carter also faced criticism for his failure to secure passage of an effective energy policy. Though Carter called himself a populist, his political priorities were never wholly clear. Arguing that some restrictions over the course of the past century limited competition and increased consumer costs, he favored decontrol in the oil, airline, railroad, and trucking industries.

By the end of his term, his disapproval rating reached 77 percent, and Americans began to look toward the Republican Party again. Acting as both mediator and participant, he persuaded the two leaders to end a year state of war. The subsequent peace treaty was signed at the White House in March After protracted and often emotional debate, Carter also secured Senate ratification of treaties ceding the Panama Canal to Panama by the year But Carter enjoyed less success with the Soviet Union.

Senate, many of whose members felt the treaty was unbalanced. After an Islamic fundamentalist revolution led by Shiite Muslim leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini replaced a corrupt but friendly regime, Carter admitted the deposed shah to the United States for medical treatment. Angry Iranian militants, supported by the Islamic regime, seized the American embassy in Tehran and held 53 American hostages for more than a year.

The long-running hostage crisis dominated the final year of his presidency and greatly damaged his chances for re-election. For the United States, the 20th century was a period of extraordinary turmoil and change. Where once the United States transformed itself over the slow march of centuries, it now seemed to reinvent itself almost by decades.

In the depths of the Great Depression, ca. The new president, Franklin D. Roosevelt signs perhaps the most far-reaching legislation of the New Deal: Today, Social Security, one of the largest government programs in the United States, provides retirement and disability income to millions of Americans. Two years later, he made good on his promise and waded ashore at Leyte as American forces began the liberation of the Philippines.

Japanese Americans relocate to internment camps in the worst violation of human rights that occurred inside the United States during World II. Disagreements over the future of Europe anticipated the division of the European continent that remained a fixture of the Cold War. The threat of nuclear weapons remained a constant and ominous fact of life throughout the Cold War era. President Harry Truman holds aloft a newspaper wrongly announcing his defeat by Republican nominee Thomas Dewey in the presidential election.

Portrait of President Dwight Eisenhower, whose genial, reassuring personality dominated the decade of the s. Lucille Ball second from left with her supporting cast, including husband Desi Arnaz left , on one of the most popular television comedy shows of the s, I Love Lucy. Kennedy addresses nearly a quarter of a million Germans in West Berlin in June President Kennedy signing the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, one of the first arms control agreements between the West and the Soviet bloc, which ended atmospheric nuclear testing.

Thurgood Marshall, one of the champions of equal rights for all Americans. Board of Education case before the Supreme Court, which outlawed segregation in public schools. He later served a distinguished career as a justice of the Supreme Court. Johnson, born in Texas, was Senate majority leader in the Eisenhower years and vice president under John F. Kennedy before becoming president. The Vietnam War ended his presidency, however, since it divided the nation.

A helicopter climbs skyward after discharging a load of infantrymen on a search and destroy mission in the Ia Drang Valley in South Vietnam. From 60, troops in , U. The crest of the counterculture wave in the United States: A launch of a space shuttle, the first reusable space vehicle.

The versatile shuttle, which has been used to place satellites in orbit and conduct wide-ranging experiments, is indispensable in the assemblage beginning June and running of the International Space Station. That remarkable year saw the end of the Cold War, as well as the end to the year division of Europe into hostile East and West blocs. President William Bill J. During his administration, the United States enjoyed more peace and economic well-being than at any time in its history.

He was the second U. In , swinging rightward in its politics, the nation chose as president Richard M.

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Nixon, who was not in favor of using federal power to aid the disadvantaged. Individual advancement, he believed, had to come by individual effort. Nonetheless, fundamental changes continued in relations between white and black.

Race Relations in USA the worst since 1960's Part 1 of 2

Although the economic disparity in income did not disappear - indeed, it widened, as unemployment within black ghettos and among black youths remained at a high level in the s - white-dominated American culture opened itself significantly toward black people. Entrance requirements for schools and colleges were changed; hundreds of communities sought to work out equitable arrangements to end de facto segregation in the schools usually with limited success, and to the accompaniment of a white flight to different school districts ; graduate programs searched for black applicants; and integration in jobs and in the professions expanded.

Blacks moved into the mainstream of the party system, for the voting-rights enactments transformed national politics. The daily impact of television helped make blacks, seen in shows and commercial advertisements, seem an integral part of a pluralistic nation. Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans were also becoming more prominent in American life.