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The author outlines important key principles that should underpin teaching and learning so that all pupils,… Paperback — Routledge Addressing SEND in the Curriculum. This topical book provides practical, tried and tested strategies and resources that will support teachers in making RE lessons accessible and interesting for all pupils, including… Paperback — Routledge Addressing SEND in the Curriculum.
This topical book provides practical, tried and tested strategies and resources that will support teachers in making science lessons accessible and exciting for all pupils, including… Paperback — Routledge Addressing SEND in the Curriculum. Some students, including some with disabilities, who currently receive certificates of attendance face this problem. All students—whether they currently would receive a diploma, certificate of attendance, or no certification whatsoever—deserve to leave high school able to signal credibly.
In the medium to long run, job requirements will presumably adjust to the new standards, although what form of readily ascertainable certification will replace the high school diploma is unclear. Second, as one changes the nature of the credentialing process, whether by increasing standards or by requiring minimum competency tests, students must first be adequately prepared to meet the challenges posed by the new credentialing process. In other words, the K curriculum ought to provide students with opportunities to learn the material required for the credential.
This concept has proved controversial and subject to litigation Debra P. The issue is further complicated by the laws requiring accommodations for students with disabilities. Phillips and Vitello discuss issues relevant to this debate in more detail. Third, it is important to recognize that employers are constantly looking for ways to lower costs. To the extent that the credentialing system makes it more, rather than less, costly for business to evaluate the capabilities of students with disabilities, the system makes the transition to employment harder.
The importance of providing clear and credible evidence of what students have achieved and are capable of should not be underestimated. Bishop sees students having the opportunity to signal higher achievement to potential employers as providing an important incentive. Michigan, New York, and Tennessee have honors diplomas to acknowledge those whose achievements sufficiently surpass the basic requirements Bond et al. In considering the three characteristics of effective instruction, it is important to note six assumptions.
These characteristics apply to the large subset of students whose disabilities involve cognitive rather than physical or sensory impairments. We considered only students with cognitive disabilities because they represent the majority of students identified as having a disability. Among individuals with cognitive disabilities, the characteristics apply to the entire range of students, from those with mild to those with severe disabilities.
These characteristics represent broad principles that, in light of the heterogeneity of the population of students with cognitive disabilities, must be particularized to meet individual student needs. These characteristics are placement-neutral; that is, they describe how instruction occurs, not where instruction takes place. Research on these characteristics is limited to how student acquire and use a range of relatively basic or middle-order skills, from functional personal management skills, to the achievement of literacy and numeracy, to the extraction of conceptual themes or "big ideas" Carnine and Kameenui, Research has not been conducted to determine the extent to which these characteristics apply when students with cognitive disabilities learn content that requires high levels of abstraction or creativity.
Although research on positive educational interventions supports the effectiveness of these characteristics and demonstrates that they can be applied in actual school settings, a gap exists between what is known about effective special education instruction and the typical state of practice. The characteristics we describe may apply, to varying extents, to students with and without disabilities alike. Research shows that, in general education, teachers typically judge the success or failure of an instructional activity primarily by its capacity to maintain classroom flow, orderliness, and cooperation Clark and Elmore, ; Yinger, At critical junctures, the teacher may determine whether reteaching is necessary for the entire class by assessing learning among a steering group of children who perform near the middle of the class Clark and Elmore, Instructional adaptation to address individual learning problems, however, occurs rarely in the regular classroom and in minor ways Baker and Zigmond, ; Kagan and Tippins, ; McIntosh et al.
By contrast, effective practice in special education, as measured by teacher decision making about instructional modifications and student achievement in reading, math, and spelling, centers instructional decision making on the individual student Fuchs and Fuchs, Research has specified methods for tracking student progress and for using the resulting database to formulate ambitious learning goals Fuchs et al.
Over time, the special educator empirically tests and develops an instructional. Many low-achieving students do well with general classroom instruction that incorporates some elements of these principles. However, for many students with disabilities, the level or intensity of application that is necessary may exceed what can reasonably be provided through general education programming. This process is called individually referenced decision making. Individually referenced decision making is perhaps the signature feature of effective special education practice, exemplifying a basic value and representing a core assumption of special educators' professional preparation.
Individually referenced decision making requires teachers to reserve judgment about the efficacy of an instructional method for a student until the method proves effective for that individual and fosters high expectations of learning. It requires teachers to plan and make ongoing, major adjustments and revisions in response to an individual student's learning, and it requires knowledge of multiple ways to adapt curricula, modify instructional methods, and motivate students.
Corroborating evidence documents how individually referenced decision making enhances learning for students with cognitive disabilities. A meta-analysis of a number of studies summarized the efficacy of individually referenced decision making for students with cognitive disabilities with an effect size of.
More recent studies in reading, spelling, and mathematics corroborate earlier evidence of positive effects Fuchs et al. Stecker in press , for example, sought to assess whether individually referenced decision making had benefits over and beyond the effects of less individualized methods for regularly revising instruction and routinely measuring student performance.
Pairs of students with cognitive disabilities were matched. The performance of one randomly selected student in each pair was measured twice weekly, and the teacher formulated instructional decisions for both students in the pair based on the one student's assessment results.
Moreover, half the matched students were also measured, but teachers had no access to their assessment profiles. Results showed that students whose instructional decisions were tailored to their own ongoing assessment results achieved consistently better than the other of their matched pais, and that measurement alone contributed little to student achievement. Intensive instruction refers to a broad set of instructional features that includes, but is not limited to, a high rates of active responding at appropriate levels, b careful matching of instruction with students' skill levels, c instructional cues, prompts, and fading to support approximations to correct responding, and d detailed, task-focused feedback—all features that may be incorporated into group lessons see the work of Wolery and colleagues, e.
Meta-analyses and narrative syntheses Cohen et al. Torgesen , for example, has studied students with phonological processing deficits, who had been predicted to experience serious problems in learning to read. Children were assigned randomly to four conditions: Preliminary results of this longitudinal study indicate that children in all three intensive instruction treatments had comparable achievement, significantly better than the control group. Just as for students with mild disabilities, research indicates that one-to-one intensive instruction helps develop the skills of students with more severe cognitive disabilities, particularly in the area of personal management, including dressing, personal hygiene, money management, and sexual behavior Billingsley et al.
Researchers have demonstrated that teaching these skills in group settings often dilutes the intensity of the instruction and proves unsuccessful in terms of both acquiring and generalizing the skills e. It is important to note that, although one-to-one tutoring may be necessary to achieve instructional intensity and promote learning within certain domains of functioning, such as reading acquisition and personal management, intensive instruction is not synonymous with one-to-one delivery. In fact, meaningful participation by students with cognitive disabilities among normal, age-appropriate peer groups for instructional activities can be critical for promoting social development and communicative competence Haring and Ryndak, ; Nietupski and Hamre-Nietupski, ; Snell and Brown, As noted by Billingsley et al.
Research demonstrates that many students with cognitive disabilities need extensive, structured, and explicit instruction to develop the processes and understandings that other children learn more easily and naturally Bransford et al. For example, in order to learn to read, many children with cognitive disabilities require explicit, structured instruction Stanovich, Similarly, without explicit instruction, the language development of many children with cognitive disabilities suffers Warren and Yoder, Parallel findings occur in other areas see Harris and Graham, As noted above, constructivism is an important philosophical influence in the current education reform movement.
Three assumptions of constructivism are particularly relevant to this discussion of effective special education. Second, constructivism holds that segmenting the curriculum into a hierarchy of discrete skills runs counter to how children learn Harris and Graham, Third, in constructivism, success in basic skills is not necessarily a prerequisite to more advanced learning and higher-order thinking Means and Knapp, As noted above, these assumptions are reflected in major general education reform initiatives and many content standards.
But they contrast with special education practice that has maintained a strong focus on the explicit teaching of basic skills. Indeed, three empirical literatures question the tenability of constructivist principles for many students with disabilities. First, the assumption that the appropriate role of the teacher is that of guide rather than provider of explicit instruction appears tenuous in light of research showing that many children with cognitive disabilities cannot be viewed as active, self-regulated learners.
Studies demonstrate that students with persistent histories of learning failure experience negative feedback that interferes with their motivation, making them more likely to suffer the phenomenon of learned helplessness Deci and Ryan, , ; Garber and Seligman, These experiences can result in behavioral patterns characterized by challenge avoidance and low persistence, which necessitate more structured, teacher-directed approaches to learning Dweck and Leggett, The second tenet of constructivism that appears somewhat problematic for students with cognitive disabilities is the assumption that cognitive components should not be isolated or fractionated and that the curriculum should not be taught as a series of discrete skills.
Research indicates that analyzing and teaching tasks in their component parts is effective and often necessary for many students with cognitive disabilities.
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The primary problem characterizing children with reading disabilities, for example, is a phonological processing deficit that impedes word learning and word recognition Adams and Bruck, ; Gough and Tunmer, ; Perfetti, ; Siegel, ; Stanovich, ; Vellutino and Scanlon, To overcome this deficit, these students require explicit instruction in recognizing discrete speech-sound segments and recognizing words Stanovich, Analogous research suggests the efficacy of related approaches that analyze and teach reading comprehension and written expression by teaching skills as components Harris and Pressley, Third, the assumption that mastery of basic skills is not a prerequisite for advanced learning appears tenuous for many students with cognitive disabilities.
For many of them, there does appear to be a hierarchy of learning, whereby students do better if they first learn number concepts and then learn to apply them. When these students fail to acquire early mathematics proficiency, they do not succeed in an academic track which requires high-order, problem-solving applications of earlier math content or a basic track which requires applications to. The failure to learn to read undoubtedly puts individuals at risk for poor outcomes in the middle and high school curricula, for which reading proficiency is assumed and required.
Despite some questions about the pertinence of constructivist assumptions to programs for some students with cognitive disabilities, constructivist philosophy nevertheless has influenced concepts of effective special education practice in substantial ways. The notion of isolated skills instruction has been replaced with more contextualized presentations, in which strategies for applying skills in generalized contexts are taught explicitly.
Research documents the potential value of situating explicit skills instruction within structured, motivating, and authentic contexts to help students learn how to apply knowledge.
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For example, Cunningham experimented with two approaches to help students develop phonemic awareness i. Phonemic awareness was chosen because there is a large body of research demonstrating its importance in helping students learn early word decoding skills e. To teach phonemic awareness, the experiment contrasted a conventional ''skill-and-drill" approach, whereby students learn skills through drill and practice but not in an explicit context, with a "metalevel" approach, which teaches skills through learning experiences situated within particular contexts.
In this latter approach, students were taught to reflect on the usefulness of phonemic awareness and were taught how to integrate the skill with other strategies. They explicitly discussed the goals and purposes of the training, observed teachers modeling the skill in hypothetical reading contexts, and had routine opportunities to apply the skill under the teacher's direction.
Cunningham found that first graders in the metalevel phonemic awareness group displayed greater reading comprehension growth than their peers in the skill-and-drill treatment. Consequently, for many students with cognitive disabilities, data-based arguments support a situated approach to teaching, which blends explicit teaching of skills with contextually rich learning experiences, a position that echoes important principles of constructivism.
Nevertheless, it is clear that explicit teaching is fundamental even within this situated teaching approach: The focus on situated context and explicit teaching for transfer is illustrated in the criterion of ultimate functioning, which, as noted earlier in this chapter, is a strategy commonly used to establish and teach valued outcomes for students with severe disabilities. Applying explicit, intensive instruction in a contextualized setting results in more meaningful participation and performance in normal, age-based routines for children with severe disabilities Nietupski and Hamre-Nietupski, ; Snell and Brown, and helps them develop general social.
Together, these three broad characteristics of effective special education instruction—individually referenced decision making, intensive instruction, and explicit contextualization of skills-based instruction—represent a potent set of practices, which have been demonstrated to enhance the learning for students with cognitive disabilities. Research on specific interventions that applied these three characteristics to teach students with cognitive disabilities documented positive effects ranging from.
We note that these three instructional characteristics represent practices that often differ from those of general education. Model special education instruction focuses on the individual as the unit of analysis, whereas general education relies on the group. Students with cognitive disabilities require intensive instruction, whereas carefully designed nonintensive instruction appears to meet the needs of most students without disabilities.
Model special education practice relies on skills-based instruction, making explicit the connections between knowledge acquisition and application; by contrast, some current content standards and curricular reforms have been influenced by a constructivist philosophy, which deemphasizes explicit instruction of discrete skills. A discussion of effective instruction would be incomplete without mentioning the use of technology, which can produce dramatic educational benefits for many students with disabilities both as an assistive device and as an instructional tool Box Increasing the participation of students with disabilities in standards-based reform will mean that they will be taught and held accountable for the new kinds of knowledge and skills reflected in state content standards.
It is important to understand the extent to which many students with disabilities are already involved in the general education curriculum and thus will be held to new standards once they are put into place.
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It is also important to understand the extent to which students with disabilities have or have not been considered in the design of standards-based reforms, particularly content standards. As noted in Chapter 3 , nationally representative data are limited regarding how many and to what extent students with disabilities currently participate in the general education curriculum and instruction.
Data are mostly confined to vari-. Technology is an extremely promising tool for improving the education of students with disabilities and is already an effective component of special education instruction in many classrooms. Advances in technologies that are useful for individuals with disabilities are being made continually.
Unfortunately the training of teachers, therapists, and parents to use technology for students with disabilities lags far behind the advances that are being made. Nevertheless, much has been achieved and the future holds greater promise. Clearly, technology can improve the quality of life for most individuals with disabilities.
Historically, two kinds of relevant technologies have been developed: Assistive technology refers to mechanical, electrical, or computerized tools for enhancing the routine functioning and communication capabilities of people who have physical or sensory disabilities. Instructional technology refers to the use of computers and other related technologies to deliver and support instruction. It has been used traditionally with students who have milder disabilities as well as with those without disabilities.
Some of the most successful examples of technology use for students with disabilities have occurred with assistive technology devices. Assistive technology includes both high-tech and low-tech devices. High-tech assistive technologies include sensory devices for individuals with hearing disabilities, voice output devices for individuals who are unable to speak for themselves, computer screen readers and braille printers for people with visual impairments, and even speech recognition systems and robotic devices for people with severe physical disabilities.
Low-tech devices, which can also be extremely useful, include head pointers and key guards for use with standard computer keyboards, adaptive eating utensils, and even Velcro. Not only do these applications directly affect quality of life, but they also increase the individual's access to the environment, expanding the ability to gain maximally from such opportunities as education. Over the years, the use of assistive devices has produced dramatic benefits for many individuals with disabilities.
For example, positioning devices have allowed students with physical disabilities to join classmates at tables, on the floor, or in a standing position. Auditory trainers have allowed students with hearing disabilities to remain in classrooms with their nondisabled peers. Portable Kurtzweil reading devices have allowed individuals with visual impairments to independently access text information from libraries and other sources. In laboratories around the world, engineers and other researchers are looking for ways to make assistive devices faster, more intuitive, and easier to use.
Although much has been done in the field of assistive technology, it is in instructional technology that most of the attention has been directed, especially for students with mild disabilities. Many advances have been made since the computer was first used in school classrooms for delivering simple instructional programs. Computers and related technologies are now used in a number of sophisticated ways for helping students achieve.
These applications can help individualize instruction for students with disabilities by adjusting both the presentation mode and the time a student can spend working on any given task. Generally, the use of instructional technologies can be categorized in four ways:. Included under the category of tutorial is drill-and-practice software and other explicit instruction applications. Typically the tutorial application controls the presentation of information and the student responds in some way.
Although newer models of technology use have been proposed recently, tutorial applications continue to be a predominant mode of technology use with special needs students. The exploratory use of technology in special education has evolved more recently with the development of multimedia platforms and software.
In an exploratory application, the student is free to roam through the application and search for information. Exploratory applications include electronic versions of encyclopedias, multimedia databases, and the World Wide Web. The exploratory use of technology differs from the tutorial in that the student navigates through the program and controls the learning that goes on. Communication technologies are becoming more prevalent in special education settings. Access to the Internet provides students with opportunities to send and receive information, in a variety of forms, literally around the world.
Other uses of communication technologies include interactive distance learning and more recently, electronic field trips. Production applications include the familiar word processor as well as multimedia development tools. With these applications, technology becomes a tool to facilitate the student synthesis and production of information in the form of multimedia presentations. These applications allow the learner to go from a passive recipient of information to an active producer of information. The use of technology for delivering instruction to students with disabilities dates back to the s, when mainframe computers at Stanford University were used to deliver mathematics instruction over phone lines to deaf students at Gallaudet University.
Although much has been learned since that time about how to use technology for instructing students with disabilities, there is still much to learn. The results of this research have been equivocal. Some studies have demonstrated that certain technology applications have had a positive effect on student learning in areas such as mathematics Bottge and Hasselbring, ; Hasselbring et al. However, other researchers have reported less positive results Anderson-Inman, ; Higgins and Boone, ; van Daal and van der Leij, These equivocal findings should not be surprising. There is no reason to believe that simply putting technology in front of a student with disabilities should automatically make the student a better learner.
Even though technologies have advanced over the past 30 years and have provided us with new and improved ways for delivering instruction, simply improving the delivery system does not guarantee instruction will be improved.
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To the contrary, improved learning is dependent on the quality of instruction and not on the medium with which it is delivered. Weak or poorly designed instructional programs are not improved simply because they are delivered using a computer or any other form of technology. Researchers and developers need to develop powerful instructional programs that can be delivered with technology, and the technology in turn needs to be used in appropriate ways.
More research is needed in order to determine the most effective uses of assistive and instructional technologies for students. Furthermore, data linking participation in the general education curriculum to academic achievement are largely absent due to the lack of representation of students with disabilities in large-scale national studies, such as the National Education Longitudinal Study NELS and the National Assessment of Educational Progress NAEP McGrew et al.
This lack of data is particularly pronounced at the elementary school level.
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Analyses conducted for the committee of the Prospects study see Appendix C provide information on third and fourth grade students. These data suggest that, for this nationally representative sample, students with disabilities were exposed to selected instructional practices e. Madeline Hunter methods emphasize anticipatory set, input and modeling, checking for understanding and other features; in mastery learning students who do not perform at preestablished levels e.
Much of the available data regarding secondary school students comes from the National Longitudinal Transition Study NLTS , a longitudinal study of students with disabilities see Chapter 3 for a description of the study sample. The available data are briefly reviewed in the next section. Data from the NLTS indicate that, across all disabilities, students in secondary school spend an average of 56 percent of their instructional time in general education courses.
About 62 percent of students spend half or more of their instructional time in general education; this varies considerably by disability. The vast majority of youth with speech impairments 81 percent of that group , visual impairments 81 percent of that group , learning disabilities 73 percent , other health impairments 67 percent , hearing impairments 67 percent , and emotional disturbances 62 percent spend at least half of their instructional time in general education courses.
Those least likely to spend half or more time in general education include students with multiple disabilities 15 percent of that group and mental retardation 29 percent of that group. Students with disabilities received better grades in special education classes than they did in general education classes, but a number of students failed special education courses, too. Across all disability groups, students with emotional disturbances experienced the greatest difficulties in both special and general education courses.
Nearly one-third of students with visual impairments and those with speech impairments spent 75 percent or more of their time in high school in general education courses and maintained a B average or better. An examination of the relationship between performance and time in general education courses showed that, as time in academic general education went up, so did the student's likelihood of failing a course, especially early in secondary school.
Students with more time in general education were less likely to be absent in ninth grade but more likely to be absent in twelfth grade. No relationship was found between time in general education and dropping out of school at any grade level Wagner et al. In recent years, educational reform efforts have focused on trying to raise academic standards for all students.
In some instances, this has led to policies that increase academic credit requirements for high school graduation. Recent nationally representative data on secondary school course-taking patterns in and confirm that academic course-taking has increased see Table During this period the average number of credits earned by public high school graduates over four years increased from Students with disabilities tended to earn fewer academic credits and more vocational credits than their peers without disabilities at both points in time. However they show a similar increase over time in academic course-taking from Data from the NLTS indicate that students with disabilities who completed high school generally met the typical state requirements of 11 or 12 credits in English, social studies, mathematics, and science Wagner, Most students, with or without disabilities, take at least one vocational course during high school.
However, data suggest that students with disabilities earn more credits in vocational education 5. Similarly, students with disabilities are more likely to concentrate in a vocational program—defined as completing three or more courses in a single occupationally specific field—than are other students National Center for Education Statistics, Data from the NLTS indicate that for many students with disabilities 68 percent vocational course-taking began in the ninth grade.
By twelfth grade, 89 percent of students with disabilities were taking at least one vocational education course Wagner et al.
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As students with disabilities progress through high school, there appears to be a general shift away from academic course-taking, toward a heavier concentration of vocational courses. For example, students in upper grades spent significantly less time in academic courses than did those in the lower grades. This trend is paralleled by a significant increase in the amount of time spent in vocational education courses by older students. Data from the NLTS suggest that vocational course-taking confers advantages for some youth with disabilities.
For example, youth who took a concentration of four or more related classes in vocational education were less likely to drop out of school in either eleventh or twelfth grade Wagner et al. The authors speculate that "this holding power may have been due to the fact that youth not only experienced a different curriculum but also met with greater success there" p. Data from this study also suggest that eleventh and twelfth grade youth in work experience programs had a lower probability of dropping out. As the data presented at the beginning of this discussion suggest, efforts to raise standards for all students appear to have already had the effect of increasing academic course-taking among all students, whether or not they have disabilities.
Some observers have raised concerns that, as these efforts continue, "increases in credit requirements may force some students with disabilities to choose courses with an academic orientation that may not have been the most appropriate or relevant to their post-school goals" Wagner, Any discussion of desired outcomes and standards relevant to all students will need to consider these important findings.
In addition, data are needed regarding the extent to which elementary schoolchildren with disabilities participate successfully in the regular academic curriculum. The potential benefits of content standards on student achievement are largely unknown and empirical evidence in support of content standards is mainly inferential.
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However, there are a number of arguments to support the idea that students with disabilities will benefit from participation in general education curriculum and the accompanying challenging expectations and more stringent accountability for their achievement. Participation in standards-based curriculum could improve post-school outcomes by increasing opportunities to access a broader curriculum and raising expectations for the performance of students with disabilities.
The need to improve outcomes derives in part from data documenting problematic post-school outcomes for students with disabilities Edgar et al. Some special educators and advocates are also concerned about what they perceive as low expectations and lack of learning opportunities provided to students with disabilities.
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