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Discourse markers in the construction of the text, the activity, and the social relations: Evidence from courtroom discourse. A case study of Argentinean reprimands and responses to reprimands. Politeness as face enhancement: Proclus gives the positions of numerous earlier Platonists. Re-evaluating the evidence, Professor Tarrant has found that the early debate was never over whether or not the story was historically true, but over whether its genre was that of a narrative, like history, with no deeper meaning or a fictional myth with a deeper hidden meaning.
He is followed by a long line of intellectuals including Posidonius and Strabo who did not take the story as history. While Plutarch seems to have been non-committal, all interpreters after Crantor mentioned by Proclus took the story as an allegory with no historical truth, until Iamblichus c. AD who continued to insist on a deeper meaning while stressing that this was not incompatible with its historical truth. Apollo Member Member Member Rated: Actually, this is very timely as I was just reading "Proclus: Commentary on Plato's Timaeus" last week.
True, I was reading the older English translation of it, not the new one, but I feel I should point out that I found nothing in it of any real value either supportive or disproving Plato's Atlantis in it, and I was looking, believe me, and would have printed it either way. I think it's important to point out that the section Atalante refers to is a commentary at the front of the book as to how the scholars believe the ancient writers treated the topic of Atlantis, not any new information gleaned from the writers themselves, but we don't need the classics professors to inform us of their opinions, we can find all the actual quotes ourselves from the original authors with some searching, and judge for ourselves: Poseidonus - open to the idea Strabo - indifferent Plutarch - far from indifferent, actually verifying that the story was passed down from Solon.
Marcellinius - apparently verifing it as well. Equally, I leave off Aelian because I have yet to find his original quote. These are the earliest ancients, they number a scant handfew at best, and while they do not all offer outright corroboration, simply the fact that they are writing about Atlantis should tell us that it was a topic worth writing about. And not one writes about it as if it were a lesson when they could have easily done so. Oddly, the only people who seem to treat it as if it were meant to be a lesson are modern scholars, as we know, not disposed to believe in the tale as factual in any part anyway.
As for Proclus' Commentary of Timaeus, here is a review I found on it last week, read it, however, I invite others to read the commentary for themselves and decide on it's value: The commentary of Proclus on the Timaeus is a wonderful monument of the silliness and prolixity of the Alexandrian Age. It extends to about thirty pages of the book, and is thirty times the length of the original. It is surprising that this voluminous work should have found a translator Thomas Taylor, a kindred spirit, who was himself a Neo-Platonist, after the fashion, not of the fifth or sixteenth, but of the nineteenth century A.
The commentary is of little or no value, either in a philosophical or philological point of view. The writer is unable to explain particular passages in any precise manner, and he is equally incapable of grasping the whole. He does not take words in their simple meaning or sentences in their natural connexion.
He is thinking, not of the context in Plato, but of the contemporary Pythagorean philosophers and their wordy strife. He finds nothing in the text which he does not bring to it. He is full of Porphyry, Iamblichus and Plotinus, of misapplied logic, of misunderstood grammar, and of the Orphic theology. Although such a work can contribute little or nothing to the understanding of Plato, it throws an interesting light on the Alexandrian times; it realizes how a philosophy made up of words only may create a deep and widespread enthusiasm, how the forms of logic and rhetoric may usurp the place of reason and truth, how all philosophies grow faded and discoloured, and are patched and made up again like worn-out garments, and retain only a second-hand existence.
He who would study this degeneracy of philosophy and of the Greek mind in the original cannot do better than devote a few of his days and nights to the commentary of Proclus on the Timaeus. Here is a link to Proclus Commentary on Timaeus, for those interested in reading it. It has been said that he considered it the commentary he was the most proud of: From these, as Plato says, he heard the story of the lost Atlantis, and tried to introduce it in a poetical form to the Greeks. But he was late in beginning, and ended his life before his work.
Therefore the greater our delight in what he actually wrote, the greater is our distress in view of what he left undone. For as the Olympieion in the city of Athens, so the tale of the lost Atlantis in the wisdom of Plato is the only one among many beautiful works to remain unfinished.
An excellent source on Greek literature and history: The earliest extant European literary works are the Iliad and the Odyssey, both written in ancient Greek probably before B. Among other early epic poems, most of which have perished, those of Hesiod, the first didactic poet, remain. The poems dealing with mythological subjects and known as the Homeric Hymns are dated B. The most personal Greek poems are the lyrics of Alcaeus, Sappho, and Anacreon.
The Dorian lyric for choral performance, developed with Alcman, Ibycus, and Stesichorus, achieved perfection in Pindar, Simonides of Ceos and Bacchylides. From the song and dance in the ceremonies honoring Dionysus at Athens, the drama evolved. Within a century tragedy was developed by three of the greatest playwrights in the history of the theater, Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Equally exalted was the foremost exponent of Attic Old Comedy, Aristophanes.
Other writers who developed this genre included Cratinus and Eupolis, of whom little is known. The rowdy humor of these early works gave way to the more sedate Middle Comedy and finally to New Comedy, which set the form for this type of drama. The best-known writer of Greek New Comedy is Menander. The writing of history came of age in Greece with the rich and diffuse work of Herodotus, the precise and exhaustive accounts of Thucydides, and the rushing narrative of Xenophon. Philosophical writing of unprecedented breadth was produced during this brief period of Athenian literature; the works of Plato and Aristotle have had an incalculable effect in the shaping of Western thought.
Greek oratory, of immense importance in the ancient world, was perfected at this time. Among the most celebrated orators were Antiphon, Andocides, Lysias, Isocrates, Isaeus, Lycurgus, Aeschines, and, considered the greatest of all, Demosthenes. The next period of Greek literature reached its zenith in Hellenistic Alexandria, where a number of major philosophers, dramatists, poets, historians, critics, and librarians wrote and taught. Hellenistic literature was imitative and specialized as to subject matter.
It was appreciated less by Renaissance humanists than it is today. The poems of Callimachus, the bucolics of Theocritus, and the epic of Appollonius Rhodius are now recognized as major works of world literature. The production of literary works just before and after the birth of Christ was enormous, but most were characterized by artificiality, pedantry, and self-consciousness. With the Roman political subjugation of Greece, Greek thought and culture, introduced largely by slave-tutors to the Roman aristocracy, came to exert enormous influence in the Roman world.
Among the greatest writers of this period were the historians Polybius, Josephus, and Dion Cassius; the biographer, Plutarch; the philosophers Philo and Dion Chrysostom; and the novelist Lucian. Yet the conscious cultivation of Greek writing in general produced many works that seemed strained and precious. One great exception was the philosophical mediations of Marcus Aurelius. With the spread of Christianity, Greek writing took a new turn, and much of the writing of the Greek Fathers of the Church is eloquent. Religion dominated in the literature of the Byzantine Empire, and a vast treasury of writing was produced which is not generally well known to the West, with the exception of some historians [e.
The Loeb Classical Library offers text and translations of most of the extant ancient Greek literature. The New Columbia Encyclopedia. New York and London: Columbia University Press, The initial form of expression was that of epic poetry. The Homeric epics have been dated in the 8th Century and they make up the first written monuments of ancient Greek literature.
Earlier records are of a sporadic nature and by virtue of their contents cannot be rightly considered as literary achievements. Two significant events which occurred beforehand provided the basic means by which the Homeric poems could be composed. The first was the creation of a profound mythological corpus from which to draw, and the second was the introduction of the Greek vowel system in writing, the writing known and understood by us.
This system came into use with the addition of the vowel sounds to the already existing North-Semitic alphabet of consonantal forms. The myth developed between the 12th and 8th Centuries. Of vowel writing, the oldest record is found on a wine pitcher of Dipylus dating in the first half of the 8th Century. The cornerstone of Greek literature is that which was laid by the anonymous Muse of the people. Mythology was after all nothing more than an attempt by the race to speak about itself, that is, to relate its history, explain its roots, and give some answer to the many questions regarding its existence.
And Greek mythology is that vast and rich corpus from which the creative literary genius of antiquity was to draw. We have seen that literature in the sense of the written word begins with Homer. This of course does not mean that poetry did not exist before Homer's age, for the Homeric epics themselves provide ample evidence of rhapsodes and singers. Poetry in the form of the heroic epic must have been the main medium through which the myth was disseminated among the Greeks for a long period of time before the first appearance of the written word.
Translated by Harry T. The letters of Epicurus in book 10 are particularly valuable. The work is divided into chapters without titles. The work is dated to the earlier decades of the 3rd century AD, since the last philosopher mentioned is a pupil of Sextus Empiricus fl. There is no mention of the Neo-platonism of the 4th century, which would naturally enter a discussion of Plato.
What follows is the discussion of how the text was produced from the Loeb. I do not know whether more and better MSS have been located since Walter de Burleigh's De vita et moribus philosophorum was an adaptation rather than a transcript, but Ambrosius Traversarius Camaldu-lensis came better equipped to his task. He belonged to the order of Camaldoli founded in A. He had learned Greek from Manuel Chrysoloras, the Byzantine professor who in the intervals of state employment lectured at Florence, Rome, and Pavia between and The translation of Ambrosius, completed in for an extant copy is dated February , was printed first at Rome without date, then at Venice in , at Nuremberg the next year, and several times reprinted at other places, with the alterations due to successive improvements in the Greek text.
They appeared in the second volume of the Aldine Aristotle at Venice in The whole of the Greek text, as already mentioned p. Hieronymus Frobenius et Nicolaus Episcopius studiosis S. In there appeared at Antwerp another edition, with this title: Laertii Diogenis de vita et moribus philosophorum libri X. Plus quam mille in locis restituti et emendati et fide dignis vetustis exem-plaribus Graecis, ut inde Graecum exemplum possit restitui; opera Ioannis Sambuci Tirnaviensis Pannonii. Ex officina Christophori Plantini. This editor tells us that he used older MSS.
That he has also some readings peculiar to the Borbonicus has been shown by Usener Epicurea, p. In Stephanus Henri Estienne published an edition in two volumes at Paris, with notes extending over the first nine books and a revision of Ambrosius' Latin version. A second edition, "cum Is. Casauboni notis multo auctior," was published in at Paris ; a third followed at Geneva in The fault of these editions as of Froben's is that they are based on inferior MSS.
Meanwhile, under the auspices of Cardinal Aldobrandino, there appeared at Rome an edition with a revised text and a much improved Latin version in which emendations of the text not infrequently, lurk. This had been prepared thirty years earlier by the Cardinal's uncle, Thomas Aldobrandinus, who had used the Borbonicus and had annotated the first nine books.
Nor was the tenth book left much longer without a commentator. In due time the energies of Gassendi were concentrated upon it.
DATILADO - Definition and synonyms of datilado in the Spanish dictionary
Both the physical speculations and the ethical doctrine of Epicurus attracted him, and there appeared at Leyden in Animadversiones in librum X Diogenis Laertii, with a companion volume, De vita et moribus Epicuri. A second edition followed, and a third Leyden, , in which the two parts, Epicuri philosophiae per Petrum Gassendum, tomus primus, and Epicuri ethicae per Petrum Gassendum, tomus secundus, were united.
Gassendi depended less upon MSS. A variorum edition of the whole work was published by Meibomius in ; this included the valuable commentary of Menage and other illustrative matter. In the eighteenth century hardly anything of note can be chronicled except, perhaps, the edition of Longolius Chur, In the nineteenth century appeared the edition of Hubner, Leipzig, , with a preface by Godfrey Hermann, some critical notes, and the annotations of Casaubon and Menage. Lastly, there is the edition in the Didot series Paris, bearing the name of Cobet. From the Avis des editeurs, dated August 1, , we learn that the young Cobet was introduced to the publishers in , travelled in Italy to collate MSS.
The result is that no reasons are assigned and no authorities are cited for the extensive alterations which mark this edition as a great advance upon its predecessors. If now we turn from printed copies to older sources of the text, there are numerous MSS. B 29 is the class-mark. Breathings and accents are sometimes omitted; words are sometimes wrongly divided, especially in citations of poetry ; yet the spelling of certain words is unusually good.
In a recent edition of Book III.
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Vita Platonis the editors give p. Nevertheless all critics agree that B is the most faithful to the archetype. Next to the Borbonicus comes the Paris codex Gr. Both these may be said to side with P rather than with B. Lastly, there is the Florentine MS. Ten years earlier, in , Bonnet had dealt with P, and the conclusion of these two scholars and Wachsmuth has since been generally accepted. Experts are not in entire agreement as to the age of the three MSS.
Usener collated in part another Paris codex Gr. By ill fortune the editio princeps of was printed from an inferior MS. It is the Raudnitz MS. What is most necessary now is an edition such as has been long promised, showing the true tradition of the text when BPFCo and any other good MSS.
The effect of interpolation superimposed on multifarious errors due to careless copyists is a diversity more apparent than real, which deceives only superficial examination. For we may reasonably assume that a single stray copy, brought to light in the ninth century, was the parent of all extant MSS. Whether the class of inferior or interpolated MSS. All that can be done by the most careful collation of MSS.
Thus Usener has edited Book X. Most of Book VII. A still larger instalment of fragments will be found in the works published by Diels, Poetarum philosophorum fragmenta Berlin, and Die Fragments der Vor-sokratiker ed. A separate edition of Book III. The last named is the editor for the Biblio-theca Teubneriana of Epicuri epistulae ires et ratae sententiae a L. Lives of Eminent Philosphers.
However I have not seen this. And he left behind him memorials, in the shape of writings, to the number of 30, lines, some of which, however, are by some writers attributed to Arcesilaus. They say of him that when he was asked what it was that he was so charmed with in Polemo, he replied, "That he had never heard him speak in too high or too low a key.
When he was ill he retired to the temple of Aesculapius, and there walked about, and people came to him from all quarters, thinkng that he had gone thither, not on account of any disease, but because he wished to establish a school there. And among those who came to him was Arcesilaus, wishing to be recommended by him to Polemo, although he was much attached to him, as we shall mention in the life of Arcesilaus.
But when he got well he became a pupil of Polemo, and was excessively admired on that account. It is said, also, that he left his property to Arcesilaus, to the amount of twelve talents; and that, being asked by him where he would like to be buried, he said: It is a happy fate to lie entombed In the recesses of a well-lov'd land.
It is said also that he wrote poems, and that he sealed them up in the temple of Minerva, in his own country; and Meaetetus the poet wrote thus about him: Crantor pleased men; but greater pleasure still He to the Muses gave, ere he aged grew. Earth, tenderly embrace the holy man, And let him lie in quiet undisturb'd. And of all writers, Crantor admired Homer and Euripides most; saying that the hardest thing possible was to write tragically and in a manner to excite sympathy, without departing from nature; and he used to quote this line out of the Bellerophon: The following verses of Antagoras the poet are also attributed to Crantor; the subject is love, and they run thus: My mind is much perplexed; for what, O Love, Dare I pronounce your origin?
Or shall I bid you hail, As son of proudest Venus? Or of the untamed winds? But the work of his which is most admired is his book on Mourning. And he died before Polemo and Crates, having been attacked by the dropsy; and we have written this epigram on him: Now you are happy there; but all the while The sad Academy, and your native land Of Soli mourn, bereaved of your eloquence.
The Academy of Plato Since the words "academy" and "academic" come from the name of the area where Plato taught, it is worth spending a moment to describe the park which was used for gymnastics from the sixth century BC. Academus or Hecademus, a mythical hero who had a cult following, left a garden and grove, which was about a mile north west of the centre of the city of Athens, to the citizens to use for gymnastics.
The area, named after Academus, was developed by Hippias, the son of Peisistratos, who built a wall round it and put up statues and temples. Excavations have detected the foundations of Hippias's wall. The statesman Kimon planted olive and plane trees there and diverted the river Cephisus to make the dry land fertile. Festivals were held there, as were athletic events in which runners would races between the altars, and funeral games also took place in the Academy. It must have been a beautiful park when Plato, who had a house nearby and a garden within the area, began to teach there in around BC.
The first point that we must make is that the modern use of the word 'academy' will give us a false impression of what Plato actually set up. It is not surprising, therefore, that by a more or less unconscious retrojection modern scholars have attached the particular significance which 'Academy' has in their own milieu to the garden of Plato's which was situated in the suburb northwest of Athens called 'Academia' after a mythical hero The fresco The School of Athens by Raphael represents the modern idea of an academy and he has placed Plato and Aristotle into such a setting, but the reality of Plato's Academy must have been totally different.
A similar sentiment is expressed by Glucker [3]: In ancient Athens, the Academy was first and foremost a public park dominated by its gymnasium, and the connection between it and Plato's school was only one of the numerous historical reminiscences in an area rich in history. Glucker goes on to look at the writings of Pausanias who gives what is essentially a tourist guide to Athens written in the second century AD when the Academy was still supposed to be in existence.
He describes the graves, altars, and olive trees of the Academy i. He says that a memorial to Plato is found not far from the Academy but there is no mention of Plato's school nor, for that matter, is there any mention that Plato was connected with the Academy which is simply a park. What then was Plato's Academy? The metaphysical theories of the director were not in any way 'official' and the formal instruction in the Academy was restricted to mathematics. Plato's influence on these men, then, was that of an intelligent critic of method, not that of a technical mathematician with the skill to make great discoveries of his own; and it was by his criticism of method, by his formulation of the broader problems to which the mathematician should address himself, and We should look at perhaps the only 'fact' which is usually given about the Academy in Plato's time.
This is that above the door Plato inscribed "Let no one who is not a geometer enter". This is not stated in any literature which has come down to us earlier than a document from the middle of the 4th century AD which, therefore, was written about years after Plato founded the Academy. Before we discuss whether it is likely that indeed this was written above the door of the Academy, let us give what is probably a more accurate translation - "Let no one who cannot think geometrically enter".
First we note that above the doors of sacred places there was often placed an inscription "Let no unfair or unjust person enter". What is reported above the door of the Academy is exactly the same Greek words except "unfair or unjust" has been replaced by "non-geometrical". Next we note that the sentiment is exactly what Plato might have written, for it expresses an idea which runs throughout his writings. However, it seems highly unlikely that something of this nature would be handed down by word of mouth for years before being written down, so despite it being an attractive idea, it is almost certainly fictitious.
It appears that the Head of the Academy was elected for life by a majority vote.
Meaning of "datilado" in the Spanish dictionary
The first few to lead the Academy were: Aristotle was a member of the Academy for many years but never became its Head. We should note, however, that Cicero, writing in the first century BC, traces the Academy back earlier than Plato and gives its leaders up to BC as: Some authors see this as the beginning of the New Academy as opposed to the that from the time of Plato to that of Crantor which is called the Old Academy. Cicero gives the leaders of the New Academy as: Philo left Athens in about 85 BC and went to Rome.
About a year earlier Lucius Sulla had marched an army on Athens. During the siege of Athens many of the trees in the Academy park were cut down to provide timber for the war effort but there is no evidence that by this time the school led by Philo had any connection with the Academy parkland. It appears that after Philo left Athens the activity in the school ended and there is little evidence that it was restarted before the 2nd century AD.
The usual suggestion that Plato's Academy existed from BC until Justinian closed it down in AD is, therefore, not only inaccurate because it appears that there was no Academy from 85 BC until the 2nd Century AD but also because the Academy continued to exist after Justinian's edict to close the pagan schools. Damascius was Head of the Academy in AD and he left Athens at this time with Simplicius and other members of the school. However Simplicius returned to Athens where he certainly wrote, undertook research and was Head of a very restricted Academy until his death in AD.
The Academy Philosophical institution founded by Plato, which advocated skepticism in succeeding generations. The Academy Academia was originally a public garden or grove in the suburbs of Athens, about six stadia from the city, named from Academus or Hecademus, who left it to the citizens for gymnastics Paus.
It was surrounded with a wall by Hipparchus, adorned with statues, temples, and sepulchres of illustrious men; planted with olive and plane trees, and watered by the Cephisus. The olive-trees, according to Athenian fables, were reared from layers taken from the sacred olive in the Erechtheum, and afforded the oil given as a prize to victors at the Panathenean festival. The Academy suffered severely during the siege of Athens by Sylla, many trees being cut down to supply timber for machines of war.
Few retreats could be more favorable to philosophy and the Muses. Within this enclosure Plato possessed, as part of his patrimony, a small garden, in which he opened a school for the reception of those inclined to attend his instructions. Hence arose the Academic sect, and hence the term Academy has descended to our times. The name Academia is frequently used in philosophical writings, especially in Cicero, as indicative of the Academic sect.
Sextus Empiricus enumerates five divisions of the followers of Plato. He makes Plato founder of the first Academy, Aresilaus of the second, Carneades of the third, Philo and Charmides of the fourth, Antiochus of the fifth. Cicero recognizes only two Academies, the Old and the New, and makes the latter commence as above with Arcesilaus.
In enumerating those of the old Academy, he begins, not with Plato, but Democritus, and gives them in the following order: If we follow the distinction laid down by Diogenes, and alluded to above, the Old Academy will consist of those followers of Plato who taught the doctrine of their master without mixture or corruption; the Middle will embrace those who, by certain innovations in the manner of philosophizing, in some measure receded from the Platonic system without entirely deserting it; while the New will begin with those who relinquished the more questionable tenets of Arcesilaus, and restored, in come measure, the declining reputation of the Platonic school.
Views of the New Academy. The New Academy begins with Carnades i. They denied the possibility of aiming at absolute truth or at any certain criterion of truth. Carneades argued that if there were any such criterion it must exist in reason or sensation or conception; but as reason depends on conception and this in turn on sensation, and as we have no means of deciding whether our sensations really correspond to the objects that produce them, the basis of all knowledge is always uncertain.
Hence, all that we can attain to is a high degree of probability, which we must accept as the nearest possible approximation to the truth. The New Academy teaching represents the spirit of an age when religion was decaying, and philosophy itself, losing its earnest and serious spirit, was becoming merely a vehicle for rhetoric and dialectical ingenuity. Cicero's speculative philosophy was in the main in accord with the teachings of Carneades, looking rather to the probable illud probabile than to certain truth see his Academica.
The author of this article is anonymous. The IEP is actively seeking an author who will write a replacement article. Chronos Member Member Member Rated: In Plato's time, books as we know them today didn't exist, of course, as printing was invented only about twenty centuries after he died! Texts that were made available to the litterate public were most often written on rolls of papyrus, in several columns, and the reader had to unroll the roll of papyrus to move from column to column, and to roll it back all over after he had finished reading, the make it ready for a new reading.
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