Her surface, too, is clearly seen to be diversified by dark markings of definite shape, but on no other body in all the sky can we make out the least detail without a telescope. The first of these is from east to west, and is by far the most rapid. The axis of revolution passes through two points which we call the celestial poles, and the motion is parallel to the celestial equator.
All the others are in the main from west to east, though the progress of the planets is complicated by periodical retrograde movements. All take place in the zodiac, which is a series of constellations forming a great band round the heavens. The path of the sun is a great circle through this, called the Ecliptic because eclipses can only happen when the moon is also on it ; and the paths of moon and planets are slightly and variously inclined to it.
Thus the daily path of a star is affected only by the simple uniform movement of the entire heaven in reality the rotation of the Earth but the daily path of a planet, or of the sun or moon, results from a combination of this general movement with its own peculiar movement, which is generally in the opposite direction. If it is difficult to conceive a body moving simultane- ously in two different directions, an earthly analogy will make it easy. These are like the fixed stars on the apparently revolving sphere. But human beings are free to add their own movements to that given them by the platform on which they stand.
A woman walks as he does, but much more quickly, so that she rapidly passes many posts, although all the time she is being carried backwards with them: Children run backwards and forwards: It is in this fashion that the movements of the skies present themselves to careful observers on this seem- ingly stationary earth ; and in the youth of the world these apparent movements were believed to be real.
The ancients thought that the sky was actually revolving round a steadfast earth, while the sun and moon and certain other " wandering stars " had in addition various motions peculiar to themselves. The table of periods which follows see pp. Some of the terms used will be explained later.
Diagram illustrating Synodic and Sidereal Periods. The arrows show the direction of the Moon's monthly and the Sun's yearly revolutions in the zodiac, as seen from Earth. When the Moon is opposite the Sun, for instance in Libra while he is in Aries, she is full. As these pages are passing through the press, a letter rroiu Mr. Maunder appears in I'he Observatory for August on "The Origin of the Constellations," and this should be consulted by anyone interested in the subject.
Maunder points out that Ptolemy gives us much more pre- cise information than Aratus regarding the southern limits of the ancient constellations, and that the changes which he says he ventured to make in their traditional forms are extremely insignificant. Maunder further observes that the celestial equator of Aratus cannot give any clue to the origin of the constellations as R.
Brown suggested , but only to the date of the work from which Aratus copied, when some astronomer had drawn the equator through the constellations. A slight alteration of the text, Mr. Maunder says, would give a correct equator for the date B. The sky appears to us like an arch, embracing all our lives, Dante says. The consciousness expressed itself in many ways: Thus, long before astronomy became an exact science, and was studied simply for its own sake, patient observers had laid the foundations, and were familiar with many of the movements we have been describing.
These are of great importance to primitive man. Sun, moon, and stars are invaluable as guides, especi- ally at sea, and we know that the ancient Greek mariners used to steer their ships by observations of the Great Bear, while the Phoenicians preferred to use the Little Bear for this purpose. But the strongest and most universal incentive to careful and prolonged study of the skies is our complete dependence upon them for the measurement of time.
In the earliest period of their history, the Jews, the Greeks, and probably every other nation, divided the day simply into morning, noon, and evening, according as the sun was rising, or apparently stationary, or 1 Conv. But at a very early period the first of all astronomical instruments was invented, by which the sun's varying height can be measured: The gnomon in its simplest form is a pole set up vertically on a smooth level surface, on which its shadow as cast by the sun can be observed. The moment of shortest shadow marks the middle of the day, the shortest midday shadow marks the summer solstice, the longest the winter solstice, the equinoxes falling between.
The instrument also indicates the points of the compass, for the sun is always due south in northern latitudes at midday: The gnomon was said to have been introduced into Greece by Anaximander about B. The Chinese certainly observed the length of the shadow more than two thousand years B. They set up a post about 6 ft. It was also the beginning of the sundial. The course followed by the moving end of the shadow was traced on the ground, and divided into equal parts: This is known as the system of "temporary hours.
The skill and knowledge of the Greeks enabled them, later on, to construct dials of different kinds, which marked "equal hours," such as we use now; but the system of "temporary hours" did not altogether die out till after the invention of pendulum clocks in the 17th century of our era. Clepsydras, or water-clocks, were also used in Egypt and Babylonia, and ancient Greece ; and there is still a large one in Canton, where a reservoir is placed in a tower, and the water falling, drop by drop, into a receiver whose depth is marked in figures on the wall, 1 Dr.
Hose, in " Trarel and Exploration," for Feb. These clocks cannot have kept very good time, however, or they would have been more used by the Babylonian and Greek astronomers who took pains to ascertain the exact positions of the stars. Owing to the diurnal revolution of the skies, the time at which any celestial body rises or crosses the meridian after another is an index of their distance apart, east and west on the sphere, and this is how it is reckoned by modern astronomers. But the ancients seem to have been never able to trust their clepsydras sufficiently to use this method, and only referred to them for approximate time.
The gnomon, valuable as it is for marking the sun's daily course, and the north and south part of his yearly motion, is a limited instrument. It cannot show his westerly motion on the sphere, nor is it of any use for the planets. To trace these motions, and the monthly journey of the moon, the first step is to distinguish the stars, by grouping and naming them, especially those which lie in the path of sun, moon, and planets.
The invention of some kind of zodiac is probably older even than the invention of the gnomon, and also originated independently among different races. The germ of the idea may be found to-day among races low in the scale of civilization. The Australian aborigines are familiar with that unique star-cluster wliich we call the Pleiades, and know that its appearances and disappearances are periodical and coincide with the seasons.
Sir Norman Lockyer has shown that the mysterious alignments of stones found at Stonehenge, Carnac, and other places, may have been so arranged in order to show the direction, some of the sun at his rising on certain dates, notably the morning of the summer solstice, and some of the Pleiades or other striking stars, whose rising just before the sun would enable ancient astromomers to fix the dates of important festivals.
Such observations as these, of which many instances might be drawn from many parts of the world, are first steps towards studying the whole path of the sun through the stars, and of forming a calendar with a name or number for every day in the year. Until the stars are known, and a calendar fixed, the motions of sun and moon cannot be learned in detail, the planets can scarcely be distinguished from the stars and from one another, and there are no settled dates from which to calculate their periods.
The first zodiac of which we have written record is a lunar one of 28 constellations, which is referred to in the " Canon of the Emperor Yaou," a Chinese emperor who began to reign in B. One astronomer was commanded by the Emperor to " reside at Nankeaou and arrange the transformations of the summer, and respectfully to observe the extreme limit of the shadow. The day, he said, is at its longest, and the star is Ho: The star of the winter solstice, when ''the day is at its shortest " was Maou, which is the Pleiades.
Directions are also given for observing the spring and autumn equinoxes, when day and night are of medium length, and certain other stars are to be observed. But her synodical period i. From this custom arose another, that of counting the beginning of the day from sunset, but in various times and places other starting-points have been chosen — sunrise, midday, or midnight. These animals were widely adopted by other nations — the Koreans and the Japanese, the Mongols of Tibet, the Tartars, and the Turks.
Another zodiac, however, was destined to have an even wider popularity, spreading, in the course of centuries, from Greece to Arabia, Persia, India, and China, where it finally superseded the native constel- lations ; it crossed the Mediterranean into Africa, conquered the whole of Europe, and is used to-day over the whole civilised world.
Strange to say, we cannot tell with any certainty where, when, or by whom, this ancient series of constellations was devised and named. The earliest full description which we possess is by a Greek poet of the 4th century B. Paul in his address to the Athenians on Mars' Hill. Since he himself hath fixed in heaven these signs, The stars dividing ; and throughout the year Stars he provides to indicate to men The seasons' course, that all things duly grow. For men could not Or tell or learn the separate names of all.
Since everywhere are many, size and tint Of multitudes the same, but all are drawn around. So thought he good to make the stellar groups, That each by other lying orderly, They might display their forms. And thus the stars At once took names and rise familiar now. Some of these figures are very strange and suggestive. We have a maiden with wings, a centaur shooting arrows, a flying horse, a water-snake with a crow and a cup on its back, a charioteer with a goat on his shoulder, a man strangling a serpent, another pouring water into the mouth of a fish, and a strange beast like a goat with a fish's tail.
All had their meaning, doubtless, to their originators, but to us they are cryptic characters, hard to decipher. Among the zodiacal constellations only one is obvious. Libra the Scales, the sign in which the sun is when days and nights are perfectly balanced in -length ; but this is comparatively recent, for Aratus and his contemporaries give in its place the Claws of the Scorpion, the latter being an enormous monster extending over the space of two asterisms. The figures may have been religious symbols, or an illustration of some myth concerning the sun's yearly course, or each of the twelve may have indicated the weather or the occupation suitable to the month it represented.
The ear of corn in the hand of the Virgin, and the juxtaposition of three watery figures in Capricornus, Aquarius, and Pisces, suggest the latter explanation. Many dififerent ideas probably played a part in the origin of these mysterious constellation-forms. Thus, the kneeling figure with his foot upon a dragon, became and remains the hero Hercules, although Aratus only describes him as a man toiling at some unknown task, and says he is called simply the Kneeler. Successive generations of astronomers altered some of the figures, but probably only to a slight extent.
He was not an astronomer, however, and the poem is only a popular paraphrase of a lost work by Eudoxus. This Greek astronomer had lived a hundred years earlier, and it is thought that he himself copied from an older source. The attempt to discover this source has been the object of many ingenious conjectures, and much research among ancient monuments and writings.
Some of the old constellations are met with in Isaiah and Job, in Homer, on tablets found at Nineveh, and an immense antiquity is sometimes claimed for them. Dupuis, writing at the end of the eighteenth century, thought he had conclusively proved that the figures of the zodiac were designed in Egypt 15, years ago! An ingenious theory, suggested independently by Schwartz and Proctor, and developed by Mr.
Delambre, Ilistoire de V Astronomie Ancimne, ii. The Old Constellation Figures. AuntraUs are aihhd to tinse. For the centre of the circular patch seems to lie near the star Delta Hydri, which was the South Pole star at that time. This movement of the Pole among the stars, due to "precession," will be explained later. This date does not differ much from that found by Robert Brown, from the position of the celestial equator among the stars, as described by Aratus ; he says B. Maunder, from additional considerations of the positions of various constellation - figures, says that they must all have been originally designed about B.
Unfortunately the descriptions of Aratus are neither very precise nor consistent wdth one another, and he is our oldest and our main authority for the forms and positions of the ancient constellations. It changed its bed like the Euphrates, of which it is perhaps the heavenly counterpart , and now has left the Sea- Monster high and dry, while on its ancient banks a chemist'. Orion and the Pleiades, the Great Bear and Arcturus, and perhaps many others, were familiarly known in the Levant as early as the tenth century before Christ ; and we find traces of our zodiac, or its beginnings, in Babylonia at least as early as the eleventh.
It is always to Egyptians and Babylonians that the Greeks referred as their predecessors and teachers in astronomy, but the native constellations of Egypt seem to have been different, and so far as we know at present the Babylonians began earlier and made greater progress in star-lore than any other nation before Greece.
The latest results of expert investiga- tion of astronomical tablets discovered in the ancient clay libraries of Babylonia and Assyria, tend to show that astronomy was of native growth there, and developed very slowly. This star-worship and star-study seems to have been learned by the Semitic Babylonians, and their descend- ants and rivals the Assyrians, from a race with whom they met and mingled in the grey dawn of history, but whose existence was unknown to us before the middle of last century.
Much the same may be said about tlie tropical circles. Either Aratus was careless, or the globe from which he took his descrip- tions was incorrect: Schia- parelli's two monographs on Babylonian Astronomy, from which much of the information here given is derived, are chiefly based on these works. The Mijon Gud of Ur. From a cylinder-seal in the British Museum, dated about b. Reproduced by permission of the Trustees. The triple star-sign of the Babylonians. This, we learn from the inscriptions, stood for three great deities, the Moon-god, the Sun-god, and the goddess of the planet Venus.
Our illustration shows an inscription in early Babylonian script, and a scene which represents the vassal of a king of Ur Abraham's " Ur of the Chaldees " being led into the presence of the Moon-god. The Babylonians were an intensely super- stitious people, and a large part of their omens were drawn from observations of the skies. It is not certain what purposes were served by these towers, but the successive platforms may well have been the observatories from which the Babylonian priests, gazing through the clear air and over the level plains, watched, year after year, and century after century, eclipses of sun and moon, risings and settings of stars and planets, and all the changing pageant of the skies, which to them were eloquent of peace and prosperity, or of war and misfortunes in their land.
Although this illusory art chiefly occupied the early Babylonian astronomers, they made some observations of real value, and gradually acquired true knowledge concerning the movements of the heavenly bodies. Tablets a few centuries older than the Chinese Canon of Yaou containing lists of the Sumerian names of twelve months, show that this people had established a luni-solar year.
Fortunately for the progress of astro- nomy the year does not contain an exact number of months, or even of days: Therefore the first rough approximation had to be constantly corrected if calendar festivals were to recur at the same seasons ; and thus the priests, who in early times were usually the calendar makers and keepers, became gradually better and better acquainted with the movements of sun and moon, and the appear- ance of star-groups. It is interesting to compare the diff'erent ways in which various races have solved the problem of calendar-formation.
The written character for "intercalary" in both Chinese and Japanese is a compound of the characters for " gate " and " Emperor," because in ancient days the Emperor used to perform the ceremonies proper to each of the twelve months in the special room of his palace dedicated to that month, but in the intercalary month he performed them in the doorway of the palace.
The Egyptians and the Arabs seem to have given up the attempt to harmonize the two periods, though both of these nations reckoned twelve months in their years. The Egyptians counted thirty days to each month, and added five days more at the end of the twelfth, so that the months carr have had no connection with the moon: This " heliacal rising " of Sirius heralded the great event of their year, the overflow of the Nile. The Arab year, on the contrary, was purely lunar, for it consisted of twelve months which were alternately of twenty- nine and thirty days: The Mahomedans still use this lunar year.
The new moon festivals of the Hebrews prove that the moon was important to their calendar, but the three chief feasts of First-fruits, of Ingathering, and of the Passover, were so closely connected with the seasons that their year must have been luni -solar. Some think, that as an offering of first-fruits was to be made on a certain day of a certain month, the month preceding it was doubled in every year in which it was evident that the crops would not be far enough advanced for the first-fruits to be gathered so soon: At first an extra month seems to have been added to the usual twelve, in an irregular way, whenever found necessary, judging by a tablet of the great king Hammurabi, who united all the cities of southern Babylonia under one rule, and gave them the famous Code of Laws, communicated to him by the Sun-god.
The tablet runs as follows: And instead of the payment of taxes being made on the 25th day of Tasritsu, let it be made on the 25th day of Ululu the second. A thousand years or more after this, we find that royal decrees for correcting the calendar were never necessary, for the astronomers had invented more than one system for keeping the year right. One of these was to observe, like the Egyptians, the heliacal rising of certain stars.
The little group of three stars in the head of the Ram, which we call Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Arietis, was found very convenient for this purpose. This is the meaning of the directions given on a tablet now in the British Museum: Whenever this asterism remains invisible, let its month be forgotten," that is, let it be taken over again, as if it had not already been counted. Similar directions are given for some other asterisms and their corresponding months. But a second method, which was peculiar, so far as we know, to the Babylonians, -was that of using the moon as a pointer to indicate the place of the sun.
Whereas the sun's place among the stars can only be inferred, the moon's can be plainly seen, and her phase indicates her distance from the sun at any time. A tablet of unknowm date, belonging to the last millenium before our era, or a little earlier, gives the following directions: When on the third day of Nisan the asterism Mulmul and the Moon are together, the year will be full " that is, will contain 13 months. But in any case the method of calendar formation is the same.
The position of the young moon which always closely follows the sun showed that the sun was not far west of the Pleiades ; and about e. The sun's position is given for about half an hour after sun- set, when the Pleiades would first be visible. Several lists of stars and star-groups indicating the months in this way have been found, the early lists containing only a few, the later twelve. New Mouu not far from Pleiades on the 1st of Nisan. It takes the sun days to return to the same place among the stars, but the Babylonian year of 12 lunar months each of 29 or 30 days was 11 days sliort of this ; therefore on the 1st of Nisan in this year the sun had still 11 days' march before him ere he returned to the position of Fig.
But as she travels about 13' eastward every day, she would be near the Pleiades on the following evening, the 2nd of Nisan, so this year was also counted normal. The year was therefore "full," that is an extra month of 29 days was added, which is more than the 22 days needed to enable the sun to reach his first position by the 1st of Nisan in the fourth year. It appears, therefore, that the extra month must have been added once in three or four years.
From a boundary stone now in tha British Museum set up in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar I. The Goat, with Fishes' Scales. From a Babylonian boundary stone. A Scorpion with immense claws, and a Goat with fishes' scales appear several times on monuments at least as old as B. It has been definitely proved from inscriptions that before B. It does not necessarily imply that the equinox was in Taurus when our zodiac was invented. It was near w Arietis in B. Under the great Assyrian kings who in the 8th and 7th centuries B. The motions, phases, and eclipses of the moon were carefully studied and could be accurately predicted, the positions of many stars were determined ; the zodiac was divided into twelve equal spaces, which afterwards became 36 by sub-division the constellations being too unequal in size for convenience ; and finally the whole circle was marked out in degrees.
The movements of all the naked-eye planets were well understood, their positions being constantly compared with those of a number of standard stars, mostly in the zodiac; and after watching and recording these for a number of years the astronomers were able to calculate where each planet would be found at future dates. Tables have been found on clay tablets of the 2nd century B. When astronomy had reached this stage of accurate prediction, it was no longer in its infancy, but was fairly on its way to become a true science.
This treatise formed the subject of a lecture given by Mr L. King before the Society of Biblical Archeology on Feb. And this must be said of other ancient nations also. The Egyptians made careful observations, especially of the heliacal risings of different stars, by means of which they determined the length of the year, as we have already mentioned, and oriented their temples and pyramids. They worshipped the sun in all his aspects, and their astrology so much resembles the Babylonian that it is believed to have been derived from it.
Yet we find no more rational attempt to explain these phenomena than the Hindu legend of a great dragon that attacks the sun, or the Egyptian story of a sow that swallows the moon ; and their cosmogonies can only be regarded as poetical descriptions or sur- vivals of early childlike notions of the universe.
The Hindu world resting on the back of an elephant, and that on a tortoise, is no doubt but an allegory. The Egyptians pictured the earth as a great parallelogram, long from north to south but narrow from east to west, like their own land, with the sky over it, upheld by huge pillars or lofty mountains. The bark of the sun came nearer to Egypt in the summer, because at that time the celestial river overflowed its usual bank, like the Nile. The red Doshiri was said to sail backwards, referring no doubt to the retrograde movement of Mars.
In Eridu, one of the oldest cities of southern Babylonia, on the Persian Gulf, the great abyss of the ocean was looked upon as the origin of all things, and it was believed that it encircled the earth like a great river. Later on, we find the world described as a great mountain, resting on the watery deep, and under the mountain is the abode of the dead.
It is entered from the west, which surely was suggested by the setting of the heavenly bodies in the west. The vaulted sky above the earth has divisions: The sun issues forth each morning from a door in the upper heaven, or from the mount of sunrise, and enters another heavenly door, or the sunset mountain, at night. From an ancient Egyi. The reciuubent figure covered with leaves symbolizes the earth ; the figure leaning over Eartli, covered with stars, is the sky ; the boat of the rising sun and of the setting sun floats over it.
The central figure represents Maon, the Divine Intelligence wliich preserves the order of the universe. With growing civilization more refined methods are used ; the gnomon is invented for studying the movements of the sun ; the changing positions of moon and planets are noted by means of certain stars ; finally, all the visible stars are grouped into constellations, and it is recognized that a great band of star-groups crosses the sky, which forms the pathway alike of sun, moon, and planets; the length of the month and of the year are determined more or less accurately, and when an unvarying calendar has been formed, the celestial cycles can be better recorded and studied.
But in all this there is as yet no scientific motive properly so called, no curiosity regarding the phenomena for the-, simple pleasure of knowing and understanding them, no attempt to group them into a system or to explain their underlying causes. The ancients found that the stars were of great use, especially for measuring periods of time ; they recognised also in them a marvellous order and regularity, of which they dreamed that they found an echo on earth, and endeavoured to divine the future by watching the skies. Can we doubt that they were also attracted by the beauty that calls all men through all ages to lift their eyes and look upward?
Sun-god, in the midst of heaven, At thy setting- May the latch of the glorious heavens Speak thee peace. May heaven's door to thee be gracious. May the Director, thy beloved messenger, direct thee. Lord of E-bara, may the road of thy path be prosperous, Sun-god, cause thy highway to prosper. Going the everlasting road to thy rest. Sun-god, thou art he who is judge of the land.
Causing her decisions to be prosperous. From a lecture by T. Hail to you and to your genius, interpreters of heaven, worthy recipients of the laws of the universe, authors of the principles which connect gods and men! To turn from the astronomy of 'Egypt and Assyria to the astronomy of the Greeks is like coming to a sudden bend in a river which has flowed through level country for many miles in a slow majestic course, and finding beyond the bend a series of rapids and water- falls.
Behind the varied splendours of earth and skies which fascinated his bodily eyes, his intellect divined laws and forces which held the whole together in a wonderful harmony. Then, as fresh facts, or a fresh point of view, thrust itself upon him, a new explanation must be attempted, and thus many complete systems of the universe were evolved. Not the name only, the idea of Cosmos was Greek. The first ideas of astronomy among the Greeks were as primitive as those of any other race in its early stages. They evidently had no conception of the sky as a sphere, or of the revolution of the stars as a whole, round fixed poles, though they watched the motions of certain bright star groups, and called them by the names that we use now however these names may have reached them , as we see in Homer and Hesiod.
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Being a northern star, its motion seems very slow, and makes so small an angle with the horizon that for a long time Arcturus glides above it before finally dropping below ; whereas the Pleiades, or any other stars near the equator, move very quickly and almost at right angles to the horizon, and so drop below it quite suddenly. It is Ulysses also who warns his companion, when they are setting out to spy upon the Trojan camp, that two watches of the night are already past, " for the stars have gone forward.
Homer and Hesiod both mention Venus, as a morning star "the brightest of all the stars, which comes to herald the light of dawn," and also as an evening star, apparently without recognizing that it was the same star ; as they do not mention any other planet we do not know if the others were known to the ancient Greeks. The first appearance of the new moon's slender crescent was watched for from hill-tops, and celebrated by sacrifices, and this — as with other ancient nations — fixed the first day of their month.
The sun was thought to rest upon and slide over the solid dome of the sky, otherwise perhaps it would have fallen to the ground ; and at night it was supposed to go behind Mount Atlas, and then to travel behind high northern mountains to its rising place in the east. This primitive explanation of its movements is so poetically described Mimnermus by an early poet, Mimnermus, that I cannot c.
They may be freely rendered thus: No rest for him or for his steeds When Dawn has climbed the height Soon as he lays his weary head Upon the golden winged bed Made by Hephaestos' might, It bears him sleeping o'er the seas, Far from the fair Hesperides, Through realms of darkest night; Till in the Ethiopian land He sees his horses ready stand: And when the child of light, The rosy-fingered, early-born, Has ushered in another morn.
He mounts his chariot bright. The earth, as pictured on the shield of Achilles, was flat and round, just as it appears from a height, and of course Greece was the centre, just as Egypt was the centre of the Egyptian, and Babylon the centre of the Babylonian cosmogonies.
It was a small earth: This was a great gulf of the River Oceanus which encircled the whole earth. Its sources were in the furthest west, just beyond the Pillars of Hercules, and thence it flowed north, east, and south, finally returning into itself. A branch from near the source, called the Styx, flowed down into the underground world of Hades, the abode of the dead, and beneath this again was Tartarus, where were imprisoned the Titans who had fought against Jove. Above the flat earth the blue dome of heaven was spread like a tent, and across it travelled "The never-wearied Sun, the Moon exactly round, And all those stars with which the ample brows of heaven are crowned.
But as thought developed, the universe expanded. In the sixth year of the war of the Lydians against Cyaxares, king of the Medes, just when a battle was about to begin, day was suddenly changed into night by an eclipse of the sun, and Herodotus adds: Thaies Thales had told the Ionian s of this before, c. This does not necessarily imply any accurate understanding of eclipses on the part of the Ionian philosopher. He had visited Egypt, and may have learned from the priest-astronomers there that eclipses recur in cycles and so can be predicted.
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But Thales was not content with cycles. He wanted to know, not only that eclipses would happen at such and such times, but how they happened. Perhaps from reports of Babylonian obser- vations, perhaps from questions put to Egyptian astronomers, he learned that solar eclipses only happen when the moon is new and in the ecliptic, that is, in the same part of the sky as the sun, and that the black body then seen on the sun has always a rounded edge. These no doubt were the arguments on which he founded his assertion that solar eclipses are caused by the moon passing in front of the sun ; and he further added that this shows the moon to be of an "earthy" nature, that is, not made of fire or any substance either luminous or transparent, but of opaque matter, probably having weight and substance, and not altogether unlike what we know on earth.
Besides his speculations regarding the moon, Thales took pains to note the sun's movements as accurately as possible, by means of gnomons, with a view to discover the exact length of the solar year, and it was he who advised the Greeks to adopt the Phoenician method of directing their course at sea by the Little Bear instead of the Great Bear, which appears to have been the constellation used in Homeric times. Thales imagined that Ocean did not merely encircle Earth, but that the whole Earth, which was a thin flat disc, floated upon the Ocean.
This zealous observer must have had something of the absent-mindedness of his great successor, Newton ; for it is told of him that while star-gazing he fell into a well! It is evident that the moon's passing in front of the sun implies a lesser distance from us, and it must have B. This scheme is rather difficult to understand, from the allusions and quotations of later writers, for we have no original writing by Anaximander ; but we can gather enough to show that already in the sixth century B.
Anaximander asserted boldly that sun and moon were larger than the whole earth: How he reached this conclusion it is impossible to say. There are two possible ways of seeing that the moon is smaller than the sun, although they usually appear to us the same size. Anaximander may have seen or heard of an " annular " eclipse, in which the moon is rather more distant from us than at a total eclipse, and therefore her dark body just fails to cover the whole sun, and a bright ring of light surrounds her.
More probably he realized what was implied in Thales' explanation of solar eclipses, and concluded that the moon must be smaller than the sun, because she looks no larger although she is nearer to us. His scheme is the first of which we have any know- ledge in which the movements of the heavenly bodies are explained by supposing them not all in one sky together, but placed in a series of heavens, one above the other: It is true that the Babylonians and Hebrews divided their heaven into three parts, one above the other, but this was only to divide the place of atmospheric phenomena from the dwelling-place of the gods, and sun, moon, planets and stars all moved in the same heaven.
Probably either in or above the heaven of celestial fire was the heaven of the gods, for, as Aristotle remarks, all our ancestors, indeed all who believe in gods at all, whether Greek or of any other race, place the dwelling-place of the gods above in high heaven, as the unchanging, unmoving region of eternity.
Perhaps he hardly knew of their existence, or said with Aratus who wrote nearly years later: The heavens themselves were not in motion, carrying the stars, sun, and moon ; Anaximander had an ingenious mechanical scheme of wheels or rings to carry them inside their respective heavens, which doubtless was clear to himself, though unfortunately it is not at all clear to us. Perhaps it was for this reason that he gave the earth a greater thickness than the disc of Thales, comparing it to a short thick pillar, three times as broad as high, the top of which only was inhabited.
The Universe according to Anaximander. Somewhat timidly the barriers have been thrust back. Earth is still the floor of the World, and Heaven — now a series of heavens — the vaulted roof above. It is interesting to see how long this timidity per- sisted among the Greek philosophers, especially of the Ionian school, in spite of the fact that other schools had advanced much bolder ideas, as we shall presently see.
Quite a number of universes were constructed somewhat after the pattern of Anaximander's, with Earth as floor of the world ; but some placed the stars beyond moon and sun, some definitely included the planets, though they do not seem to have explained their motions; and there were various ways of sup- porting the flat earth, and of supporting and moving the heavenly bodies. Anaximenes Anaximenes, a follower of Anaximander, c. Equally diverse were the opinions as to the nature and composition of the heavenly bodies. Others held, as we have seen with Thales, that they were of an earthy nature; and Anaxagoras, seeing a meteorite which had fallen from the sky during the daytime, thought he actually held a piece of the sun in his hands, and concluded that the sun was an enormous mass of iron, "much greater than Peloponnesus," and shone because it was red-hot.
The Milky Way was a source of speculation: Pericles snatched off his cloak, and held it so as to hide himself from the man's eyes. The doctrines of the different philosophers as to origin and first stages of the universe do not concern us here, but we must mention that of Empedocles, as his views are directly referred to by Dante.
This philosopher was the first to assert that every- thing consists of the four elements, earth, air, water, and fire, pure or in combination ; and the combinations he supposed to be brought about by two forces, one attractive, the other repulsive, which he named Love and Discord. Of these, one alternately predominates at different ages of the world, and thus its history is divided into periods of different character. A great step forward was taken when it was realized that the sky is not a hemisphere, ending at the horizon, or even extending a little way below, but that it sur- rounds Earth in every direction, like a sphere.
This idea probably originated with the Pythagoreans, or it may have occurred independently to several thinkers, when the diurnal motion of the heavens was better observed, and geometrical conceptions understood and applied. Now it became no longer necessary to ex- tinguish and rekindle the stars, nor to send the sun round swimming on River Ocean behind northern mountains, or creeping through strange underground regions, through the night.
It was clearly recognized that the visible course of each heavenly body was part of a circle, the whole of which we could see if we could only travel fast enough and go to the underside of the earth. Pythagorean and Eleatic , Earth still had an uninhabitable underside. Leucippus made the earth a hemis- phere, with a hemisphere of air above, the whole surrounded by the supporting crystal sphere which held the moon. Above this came the planets, then the Democritus sun, and probably the stars were outside c. His disciple, Democritus, on the other hand, retained the disc-like earth, raised a little at the Fig.
ITie Universe of Leucippus. The underside of the disc was not inhabited, no doubt because no one could stand upside down. This scheme gave the universe a beautifully sym- metrical form, which must have pleased the Greeks, but now they were puzzled to know why the heavenly Fig.
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The Universe of Democritua. Why was not the pole in their zenith and the equator on the horizon? They could only guess that it must have been so at first, and that the disc had slipped out of position, either through some irregularity in its weight, or in the density of the underlying air. All these theories and guesses may seem to us very crude and fanciful, and we may compare them to the eager questionings of intelligent children, too impatient to consider whether the answers given are satisfactory explanations or no.
But we must remember that all we know of the early cosmogonies is from allusions and descriptions by later writers, who often — like Aristotle, for instance — only quote to condemn. At least we find a keen and disinterested desire to penetrate the causes of things, and a fertile imagination, without which science can make no advance: It was dis- covered that the apparent diurnal paths of sun, moon, and every star were circles, although only a part of the paths could be seen ; and that, although all were seen projected on a sphere, their actual distances from earth were very varied.
It is disappointing to find no record of observations of the planets, and from the almost random way in which they were placed in the heavens it seems that but little attention had been paid to them as yet. In fact, Seneca tells us that Democritus knew neither their number nor their names. They were often classed with comets, and thought to be entirely erratic, and the Greek mind was more attracted towards those pheno- mena which were seen to be orderly.
As the eyes are appointed to look up at the stars, so are the ears to hear harmonious motions, and these are sister sciences. That is what the Pythagoreans say, and we, Glaucon, assent to them? About the same time that Anaximander was invent- ing solid hemispheres and rings to hold and move the heavenly bodies round about a flat earth, Pythagoras Pythagoras was founding a school in southern Italy c.
One of the characteristics of his school was secrecy, its methods were oral, and his later followers were fond of attributing to their master everything which had gradually grown out of his teaching: It has often been stated by modern writers that he anticipated Copernicus, and discovered that the earth revolves round the sun.
Though this is a mistake, we may venture to believe that Pythagoras taught that the earth is a sphere, hanging freely in space. We are so familiar with this idea from childhood, that it is difficult to imagine what a tremendous inno- vation it was. Pythagorean noviciates, doubtless after solemn initiation and preparation, were told: Earth, itself a perfect sphere, is in the centre of an infinitely greater sphere, the star-set heaven; and within this seven heavenly bodies move in perfect circles, each at its proper dis- tance and pace, all needing no support and no force to drive them, for harmony is the motive power of the Cosmos.
There is no below, and no above, for above is below and below above to our antipodes: How did Pythagoras reach this great and startling truth of the round unsupported earth? His school relied more on experiment and observa- tion than the Ionian, and the colonizing Greeks of Italy had travelled. They might have noticed the curvature of the sea, and the varying height of the Pole Star according to latitude. We know that in early days the Greeks were struck by the remarkable fact that the brilliant star Canopus second only to Sirius in bright- ness , which was invisible in Greece, could just be seen close to the southern horizon in Rhodes, and was well seen in Egypt.
Then the moon may have helped once more. When it was understood that lunar eclipses only happen at full moon, when we are between her and the sun, and that they aiay therefore be explained by the earth's shadow falling on the moon, then, since the edge of that shadow is always a circle, it is demonstrable that the body throwing that shadow can have no form but that of a ball.
Sun and moon are obviously round: Whatever may have been the steps which led to these two great discoveries that Earth is a sphere, and that the apparent path of every celestial body is a circle, the sphere and the circle were soon accepted as the only forms suitable for celestial bodies and their orbits. The founder of the school was a great mathematician, and it is not strange that these forms should have commended themselves to his disciples.
The sphere, which has its surface everywhere similar, and its contents greater than those of any other figure with equal surface, was the " most perfect " of solids ; and the circle, which has no beginning and no end, is alike in every part, and presents ideas of haunting suggestiveness to the geometer, was the " most perfect " of lines.
In the system of Pythagoras we first find the five planets distinctly enumerated, and playing as important parts as sun and moon. Number was the principle of this universe, and the planets with sun and moon made the sacred number of seven. Among the Greeks, and through the middle ages, all these bodies are spoken of as planets or " wanderers," in distinction from the " fixed " stars which do not appear to move amongst themselves.
These seven " planets " represented the seven notes of a musical scale, and the star-sphere made up the octave. Pythagoras is said to have been the first to teach that Phosphor and Hesperus, the morning and the evening star, were the same. When, however, we ask what was the order of the planets in his scheme, we meet with many conflicting reports, and a serious dilliculty suggests itself. The large oscillations of Mercury and Venus on either side of the sun would strike an observer before he thought of tracing their movements among the stars, and noting that they made a circuit of the zodiac.
Similarly, the other planets are most con- spicuous, rising after sunset and remaining long visible through the night, at the very time of their retrograde movements, so these must have been noticed if a long enough series of observations had been made to dis- tinguish them from one another. The only solution of the difficulty seems to be that Pythagoras, on the journeys into Egypt and Babylon which he is said to have made, learned that there exist planets to the number of five, which move in regular periods, and he may also have learned the length of their zodiacal periods at the same time, or perhaps these were only known to his school much later.
If the order assio-ned to them was that which was finally and generally accepted by the ancient world, the periods must have been known, for this is the only possible clue to the order Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn. The planet with shortest period the moon, with a month was naturally placed by the Greeks nearest to earth, with the smallest circle to traverse, and so on outwards.
It is very possible, however, that the early Pytha- goreans, at least, did not venture to assert more than that there were five planets, without assigning to them any order, for Aristotle tells us that their universe was divided thus: Olympos, the place of pure elements, held the stars ; the region of Celestial Fire came beyond this, and the Apeiron, the Infinite Space, or Infinite Air, from which the world draws its breath, was outside all. The diagram shows, then, the earliest form of the Pythagorean universe.
But they did not remain content Philolaus with this. It seems to have struck Philolaus as a difficulty that the seven planets, which were circling round Earth in the same direction but at very different distances and speeds, and also the immense sphere of stars beyond, were all sweeping together at the same time in an opposite direction, and at the almost incredible pace of one revolution in a day.
The brilliant idea occurred to him: Leave the stars at rest, let the seven planets revolve in their seven orbits, the nearer to the centre the faster, and let earth herself revolve fastest of all, viz. If she keeps one face always turned towards the centre, like the moon, this will account quite as well for the apparent diurnal revolution of all the heavenly bodies, and the change of day and night on the earth.
Philolaus did not make Earth remain stationary and simply turn on her axis, which would have had just the same effect on the apparent motions of the heavens ; for it seemed more natural that she should revolve as did the rest. The five naked-eye planets are all mentioned by name in his scheme. Was the centre, deprived of Earth, to be left empty? No, the centre was the Watch Tower of Zeus, the Hearth of the Universe, and here they placed the purest element, fire.
It was invisible to us, because we live on the side of the earth-sphere turned away from the centre; and also invisible to us was another planet, Antichthon, or Counter-Earth, for this revolved within our orbit, and also in twenty-four hours. It was added to the system, because the addition of Earth as a heavenly body spoiled the sacred number of seven, but by adding Antichthon, and counting the star-sphere as another, the total was brought up to ten, another sacred number. The objection was made that, if Earth is moving in space, this must bring about a change in the apparent sizes of sun and moon, as Earth is nearer or farther from them, but the Pythagoreans were quite ready to believe that all the heavenly bodies are so distant that this journey of Earth makes no difference to their apparent size or brightness.
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The planets were thought to be worlds like ours, and inhabited ; and it was even guessed that plants and animals on the moon must be fifteen times as strong as ours, apparently because there the average day consists of nearly fifteen of our days of twenty-four hours , and the nights are equally long. It was the braver of the Pythagoreans to shake the steady earth from her centre, and set her whirling in the depths of space, that they realized, as no one had done before, how large she must be ; for Greece and the surrounding lands, the Middle and the other seas, instead of making the whole of the earth, were now understood to be only a portion of a great globe.
Here, then, is a conception of the Universe widely different from Homer's. The little fiat disc has become a Fig. Only the side turned away from the centre is inhabited: Earth has made half a revolution and her outer side is now lighted by the sun, which has only moved about half a degree forward in its yearly orbit. Antichthon has also made half a revolution, therefore remains invisible. Man himself is now a tiny creature on a great earth, and his world but one among many, but if he is humiliated by his insignificance, is he not elevated by the vastness of his outlook?
But not even here did the Greeks stop. Earth and sun according to Heracleides. In the upper figure it is day, in the lower, night, on the inhabited side of Earth. The sun is on the equator, as at the time of equinox. Ecphantus the Pythagorean let the earth move, not progressively, but in a turning manner like a wheel fitted with an axis, from west to east round its own centre. It seems that they resemble the Shadow in Hans Andersen's tale, which became a man and lived apart from the man to whom it originally owed its existence, for it is now thought that they were speakers introduced by Heracleides into one of his dramatic dialogues to discuss astronomy.
Heracleides, therefore, was the sole author of this remarkable discovery. In this way Earth was restored to her central position, but as a rotating sphere, and the later Pythagoreans apparently tried to reconcile their new scheme with the old by calling Antichthon the uninhabited hemisphere of Earth, and placing the central fire within the earth. I very much regret that as Mr. Heath's book was only pubUshed this year, I have been unable to make use of it while writing of early Greek astro- nomy.
I can now only advise any readers who may be interested in my brief sketch of this period to read Mr. Heath's history, where they will find the opinions of modern writers summarized and discussed, and also the full text in English of the most ancient and reliable sources of information. It is a great encouragement to find that my statements are in agreement with his in nearly all essential points, but readers will mark the following important difi: Auaxagoras, not Thales, is said to have been the first to explain correctly the cause of solar eclipses and of the moon's phases, viz.
Heath regards the authorship of Anaxagoras as conclusively proved: Personally they seem to me to prove no more than that Anaxagoras agreed with others on this point, and was the first to express it clearly in writing. It is difficult to see why Mr. Heath denies that Parmenides held the same views before Anaxagoras: Parmenides' own words seem to prove it, and his theory that the moon was composed of air and fire mingled is rather in favour of it than otherwise.
He surely meant that the moon was not wholly bright, like the sun ; yet that she had some light of her own must have seemed evident from the faint illumination we see during total lunar eclipses and on the part of her surface not lighted by the sun. See Dante's views, p.
The connection between her phases and her distance from the sun in the sky is so extremely obvious that I can hardly think the Greeks drew no inference from it until the fifth century B. Gruppe acutely observes that the reason why Thales' pupil Anaximander did not acccept the true explanation of lunar phases and solar eclipses may have been because he felt it necessary to have a theory whicii would apply equally well to eclipses of the moon ; and as he believed in a flat earth he could not advocate the true explanation here.
This was why he invented a new theory viz. But Parmenides had learned the Pythagorean doctrine of Earth's spherical form, hence he was able to accept the older theory that the moon obtains her light from the sun, and sometimes eclipses the sun by her opaque spherical body, for he could have added that the moon is eclipsed in like manner by the opaque spherical body of the earth.
The Ionian school of philosophy died about the middle of the fifth century B. But meanwhile a new school of astronomers was growing up. The philosophers still laid down general principles, founded on abstract reasoning, which they believed must regulate the nature and movements of the heavenly bodies, but astronomy began to be regarded as a branch of mathematics, not of philosophy, and the mathematicians, leaving problems ofvultimate causes to the philosophers, devoted themselves to observation and calculation.
They carefully studied the peculiar motions of each planet, and their chief aim was to represent these geometrically by some scheme which should include them all, and make it possible to predict the places of the heavenly bodies in the sky for any given date. One cause of this great progress in methods was no doubt the natural intellectual growth of the Greek race, as they discovered that their eager curiosity concerning nature could only be satisfied by patient investigation.
The value of observation was taught, in the latter half of the fourth century, by the philosophy of Aristotle, and a great impetus must have been given by the campaigns of Alexander, in which the Greeks saw distant countries, new climates, strange peoples and customs. Callistheues The astronomer Callisthenes went with c. Alexander to the East, and received a letter from Aristotle praying him to send to Athens the Babylonian eclipse records which were centuries old; and Aristotle mentions, when speaking of the motions of the planets, that the Babylonians and Egyptians had furnished trustworthy information about each one of them.
Even before this, we find that the Greek descriptive names of the planets were changed for names of Greek deities which are believed to correspond with the Babylonian gods and goddesses who presided over the planets. Thus Plato speaks of " the star sacred to Hermes " as well as Stilbon the Glitterer, and he is the last to use commonly the name of Phosphor for the planet which henceforth was known as Aphrodite among the Greeks, and Venus among the Romans, corresponding with the Babylonian Ishtar ; and so on with the rest.
These and other good intentions designed to bring to justice those who had been responsible for the massacres came to nought due to internal upheavals in Turkey and regime change when Mustafa Kemal Ataturk came to power, culminating in the abolition of the sultanate and the proclamation of the Republic of Turkey The inter-allied tribunal, which was to have tried and finally brought the matter to a conclusion under the terms of the Treaty of Sevres dissolved in , ceased to act and the detainees were returned to Turkey in exchange for a certain number of British subjects who had been held by the forces of Kemal Ataturk.
After drawing up a blacklist of more than two hundred names, between and the Nemesis guerrillas killed several politicians and officials belonging to the Young Turks movement who had been heavily implicated in the persecution and extermination of Armenians. The German authorities tried Tehlirian for murder, but absolved him on grounds of the trauma he had experienced.
Ahmed Jamal Pasha, the former Navy minister, was also killed in Tbilisi in However, apart from these isolated acts of retribution and revenge carried out by Armenians themselves, the world at large washed its hands of the Armenian question. Russia, the United States, France, Iran, Ukraine, Georgia, Syria, Lebanon and Argentina are the countries with the largest communities, and it was here in the s that international public awareness gradually began to refocus on the tragic events of the genocide.
The European country with the largest number of survivors of the massacres is France, where the Annenian community currently numbers about , It was there that the first initiatives were launched to officially recognize the genocide: There have also been various attempts in France to introduce laws penalizing the denial of genocide: However, in February the Constitutional Council ruled that the bill was unconstitutional.
Serbia and Iceland have tabled bills in their respective parliaments with a view to securing official recognition. In Canada, Quebec led the way in recognizing the genocide in Similarly, the State of Israel has refused officially to recognize the genocide. The first direct and frank discussion on the subject was held in the Knesset in , and a committee has been set up to conduct an in-depth inquiry into the matter before coming to a decision about the use of the term genocide.
Bauer is also of the opinion that the so-called Armenian genocide began not in , but at an earlier date, with the massacres carried out in during the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II and the Cilician Massacres of However, in the Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity issued a letter signed by 53 Nobel Laureates in which the Genocide Scholars concluded that the killings constituted a clear case of genocide.. In Turkey, the Armenian question is still an open wound and the government continues to devote much academic, diplomatic, political and legal energy to discrediting the term genocide in describing the massacres perpetrated against the Armenian population.
A number of ENGLISH 77 intellectuals who have dared to speak out against the atrocities committed in the past against the Armenians have been the victims of threats and attempts on their lives. One recent example is the hate campaign waged against the Turkish Nobel Prize for Literature, Orhan Pamuk, who was forced to leave the country following his statements in reported in the German weekly Das Magazin in February , in which he criticised the Turkish govermnent for having imposed silence on this question. In Turkey, despite the difficulty that persists in taking responsibility for such a tragic and shameful episode as the Armenian genocide, in December a group of Turkish intellectuals posted a personal apology on the Internet.
Having said that, however, another group opposing the initiative also posted a document which attracted an even greater number of signatures, as well as the support of the Prime Minister, thus giving rise to profound debate on the issue within Turkey. When something is talked about, it exists. Every 24th April at Yerevan, in the ever-awesome presence of majestic Mount Ararat, the memorial around the perpetual flame, which burns in memory of all the innocent victims of the genocide, is heaped with floral tributes.
The music on this CD is one more tribute. Balakian, R, The Burning Tigris: Un genocide exemplaire, Paris, Flammarion, Oxford, Berghahn Books, Reedited in the anthology Fragments d'Armenie, Paris, Omnibus, , pp. A Complete History, Londres, I. Noah and his three sons, Shem, Ham and Japheth, disembark and repopulate the earth.
The Armenian historian Movses Khorenatsi AD writes a great three-volume History of Armenia, in which he recounts the legend of Hayk, the patriarch of the Armenian nation. According to Khorenatsi, Hayk flees from Babylonia when the tyrant Bel also called Nimrod proclaims himself king, and emigrates to the mountain region of Ararat. There, with a group of some people, he founds the city of Haikashen. Bel demands fealty, but Hayk refuses. In the ensuing legendary battle, Hayk shoots an arrow from his great bow and kills the tyrant.
The year of this victory is considered year one in the Armenian calendar. Possible arrival, with the invasion of the Sea Peoples 13th century BC , of a tribe from western Anatolia called the Arman, who spread throughout the region. The Assyrian threat to the Annenian plains leads the kings of Nairi to unite and create the kingdom of Urartu 9th - 6th century BC , which extends to the west and south of Lake Van and has its capital at Tushpa.
The Kingdom of Urartu falls as a result of attacks by Scythian tribes in the north and Persians in the south. The Thracio-Phrygian tribes of Armenians finally settle in Urartu territory and intermingle with the original inhabitants, although they impose their own language. Annenian rebellion against the occupying Persians.
Darius I crushes the revolt, as recounted in the famous Behistun Trilingual Inscription. Classical times BC. Adoption of Hellenistic culture. Creation of the Armenian kingdom of Tsokp. Conquest of the Kingdom of Dsokp by the Seleucid Empire. Independence of the Armenian territories of the Seleucid Empire. King Artashes I founds a Hellenistic- Armenian kingdom, expanding its borders and establishing a new capital at Artashat. Tigran II the Great makes Armenia a great regional power.
He founds the new capital at Tigranocerta. Uneasy at the power of Tigran, Rome goes to war with him. General Luculus conquers Tigranocerta, forcing Tigran II to relinquish most of his conquests and to ally himself with the Romans against the Parthians. He is finally deposed and exiled in Egypt, where he is later executed. Armenia becomes a Roman protectorate. Romans and Parthians divide up the Armenian territories. Armenia is to be ruled by a king belonging to the Parthian royal dynasty, but will be an ally of Rome.
Tiridates I is crowned king of Armenia by Nero. Armenia is intermittently ruled by princes of the Arsacid or Arshakuni dynasty. Armenia becomes the first nation officially to adopt Christianity. Armenia is partitioned between Rome and Persia.
Full text of "Annali d'italianistica"
The monk Mesrop Masthots creates the Armenian alphabet. Persian Armenia becomes a satrapy: Attempts to forcibly convert the Armenians to Mazdaism. Led by Vartan and Vahan Mamikonian, the Armenians resist and struggle against Persian oppression and religious persecution. Second division of Armenia between Persia and the Byzantine Empire. Arabs, Byzantines, Seljuks, Mamelukes and Mongols Arab invasion of Armenia. The capital, Dvin, falls to the Arabs.
The Arab conquest leads to the severing of ties with the Byzantine Empire and a distancing of the theological postulates of the Armenian Church from the official Church of Constantinople. Arab-Armenian Treaty between Theodores Rshtuni and the Ummayad Caliph Muawiya, leading to some measure of independence under the Arabs which lasts until the 8th century. Revolts against Arab oppression. The caliphate appoints Ashot Bagratuni governor of Armenia.
Ashot Bagratuni is crowned king of Armenia. Beginning of the Bagratuni dynasty, which will last until The mystic poet, theologian and philosopher Gregory of Narek writes his Book of Lamentations. The Byzantine Empire takes Ani and annexes Armenia. The Seljuk Turks sieze Ani from the Byzantines. Attempts to unify the Greek and the Armenian Church. The bishop of Tarsus is Nerses Lambronatsi, one of the great Armenian writers and translators. The Zakarian princes take up arms against the Seljuks in Eastern Armenia under the protection of the independent kingdom of Georgia.
He lends his support to the European Christian knights of the Third Crusade. Arrival of the Mongol invaders. Alliance between Cilicia and the Mongol invaders. King Hetum I travels to Caracorum. Marco Polo travels through Lesser and Greater Armenia. After Mongol rule, Armenia falls into the hands of Tamerlane.
The Mamelukes of Egypt conquer the Armenian kingdom of Cilicia. From Ottomans, to Persians, to Russians The Ottoman Empire dominates the Transcaucasian region in a bid to curb the expansionist aspirations of the Persian Saphavid dynasty. First printed edition of an Armenian book in Venice, Urbatagirk, by Hakob Meghapart, a compendium of prayers, myths, cures for illnesses and quotations from historical books. Shah Abbas of Persia deports 50, Armenians to Isfahan, where a thriving community of merchants is established.
First Armenian printing press in Isfahan. Second partition of Annenia between Turkey and Persia. First Armenian Bible printed in Amsterdam. Armenian revolt against Persian rule, led by David Bek. The Ekhmiatsin publishing house, the first in Armenia, is founded.
Publication of Vorogait Parats, a draft Constitution for an independent Armenia. Publication oiAzdarar in Madras India , the first daily newspaper in Armenian. The Russians take over Persian Armenia. First Russo-Turkish war over the Armenian territories. Khachatur Abovian, the father of modern Armenian literature, writes the novel Woundsof Armenia.
Russia takes the region of Kars. The Armenian political party Armenakan is founded in Van. Creation of revolutionary political parties: The Hamidian massacres of Armenians. However, they continue to be persecuted. The Adana massacres in Cilicia: Outbreak of the First World War. Armenia becomes a battlefield between Russians and Turks. The defeats suffered by the Ottomans exacerbate their resentment against the Armenians, whom they believe to be in league with the Russians. Bolshevik revolution in Russia. The Ottomans advance towards the Caucasus. The treaty is rejected by the Armenians.
Battles of Sardarapat, Bash-Aparan and Karakilisa. Annenia declares independence on 28th May: Yerevan is the capital. Free elections are held and women win the right to vote. Annenia sees some of its tenitorial aspirations realised with the future annexation of much of what is now eastern Turkey. Mustafa Kemal Attaturk rejects the Treaty of Sevres. The Bolsheviks occupy Yerevan. Russia carves up the Armenian territory, ceding the tenitories ofNagomo Karabakh and Nakhitchevan in Azerbaijan.
Revolts against the Bolsheviks. The members of the Dashnak party Armenian Revolutionary Federation are forced to seek refuge in Persia. Soviet Republic of Armenia. Persecution of the Armenian Church. The Armenians of the diaspora are repatriated to Soviet Armenia.
Massive demonstrations in Yerevan mark the 50th anniversary of the Genocide. Building of the Memorial to the Victims of the Genocide in Yerevan. Mass exodus of Armenians. Nagomo Karabakh decides to seek unification with the Republic of Armenia. Mass exodus of the Armenian population of Azerbaijan. Northern Armenia suffers a devastating earthquake. Armenia decides to unite with the region of Nagomo Karabakh. Attacks on the Armenian community of Baku. The new independence The region of Nagomo Karabakh, in Azerbaijan territory but with a majority Armenian population, declares itself independent and proclaims itself a Republic.
The Republic of Armenia is admitted to membership of the United Nations. The Armenian army liberates Shushi, the capital of Nagomo Karabakh. A new Armenian Constitution is adopted by referendum. Robert Kocharian, 2nd President of the Republic of Armenia. Official opening of the Iran-Armenia gas pipeline. Serzh Sargsyan, 3rd President of the Republic of Armenia. Evangile de peint par Toros Taronatsi au monastere de Gladsor, en Siunik Matenataran Figurines marginales detail. Desde su fundacion se encuentra situada, en terminos politicos y geograficos, en medio de otras grandes culturas en las que predominan las creencias orientales y musulmanas; y ha experimentado una historia muy dolorosa, salpicada por guerras y matanzas extremas cuyas consecuencias han sido la desaparicion de mas de la mitad de sus habitantes, el exilio de muchos otros y la perdida de grandes partes del territorio.
A pesar de todo ello, ha sabido conservar la esencia de sus particularidades nacionales a lo largo de los siglos, empezando por la creation de un alfabeto propio en por el monje Mesrop Mashtots y siguiendo por el rico patrimonio arquitectonico que hoy se encuentra disperso mas alia de sus territorios actuales.
Y, si ese patrimonio tangible es un testimonio de lo mas asombroso, tambien ha conservado un rico patrimonio intangible en el ambito musical: En todas las culturas desarrolladas, la musica -representada por ciertos instrumentos y los modos de cantar y tocar que pueden concretizarla- se convierte en el reflejo espiritual mas ficl del alma y la historia de los pueblos. De entre todos los instrumentos utilizados en sus antiguas tradiciones musicales, Armenia ha concedido una preferencia particular a un instrumento unico, el duduk , hasta el punto dc que cabe afirmar que dicho instrumento la define de un modo casi absoluto.
La musica se convierte en un verdadero balsamo, sensual y espiritual a la vez, capaz de llegarnos directamente al alma y, acariciandola, curar todas las heridas y pesadumbres. Montserrat Figueras sentia una profunda simpatia y una gran fascination por esos instrumentos armenios en especial, por el duduk y la kamancha y tambien una gran admiration por las extraordinarias cualidades musicales de nuestros amigos musicos de Armenia.
Tras su muerte, halle un gran consuelo con la escucha de esos maravillosos lamentos para dos duduks y kamanchas, y por eso les pedi que vinieran a las ceremonias que organizamos para despedir a nuestra querida Montserrat. Sus intervenciones musicales llenaron los lugares con los sonidos de otro mundo, pero tambien con una bclleza y una espiritualidad conmovedoras. Tras esos momentos de una emotion tan intensa y bajo el impacto del profundo consuelo que su musica me aportaba, se me ocurrio dedicar este singular proyecto a la memoria de Montserrat Figueras y rendir nuestro homenaje personal a un pueblo que tanto ha sufrido en su historia un sufrimiento que dista hoy de ser plenamente reconocido y un pueblo que, a pesar de tanto dolor, ha inspirado unas musicas muy llenas de amor y portadoras de paz y armonia.
Al mismo tiempo, tambien quiere ser un sincere homenaje a esos musicos extraordinarios que dedican su vida a mantener viva la memoria de esa antigua culture. Como por un maravilloso azar, el queridisimo amigo y gran maestro de la kamancha Gaguik Mouradian, me habia ofrecido ya, en el diversas antologias de musicas armenias, entre las cuales se encontraba el portentoso Tesauro de melodias armenias publicado en en Erevan por el musicologo Nigoghos Tahmizian, donde que encontre los mas hermosos ejemplos de ese repertorio, completados luego con las piezas para kamancha y otras para dos duduks propuestas por los amigos musicos armenios.
Durante estos ultimos meses no ha habido noche que no concluyera sin unas horas maravillosas estudiando y disfrutando de la interpretation de esas melodias dotadas de tan poderoso encanto. A continuation y gracias la elaboration de Lise Nazarian, otra querida amiga de Armenia, nos dcdicamos a la busqueda y el estudio de los elementos complementarios de la musica para la realization del libreto del disco: Mahe para la presentation de un resumen basico sobre el arte y la historia del pals.
De forma complementaria, Manuel Forcano aporto textos sobre la memoria del Genocidio y la cronologla de su historia: Sin Emotion no hay Memoria, sin Memoria no hay Justicia, sin Justicia no hay Civilization, y sin Civilization el ser humano no tiene futuro. Armenia es esa region montanosa, el antiguo Urartu, donde el aliento divino seco las aguas del diluvio e hizo renacer una nueva creation. Atestado en las tabletas mesopotamicas y mas antiguo que la propia Biblia, el mito del Diluvio no ha dejado de obsesionar la conciencia armenia hasta nuestros dlas. En , evocando la diversidad de saberes adquiridos de pequeno en su pueblo natal, el novelista Hrant Matevosian escribio: En efecto, Armenia murio y resucito no solo con ocasion del genocidio de -como si la proximidad del aliento divino faera a la vez temible y salvadora-, sino en multiples ocasiones en el curso de las catastrofes, las invasiones y las guerras que han marcado sus tres mil alios de historia.
Situadas en la intersection de varias placas tectonicas, las tierras de Ararat son asoladas periodicamente por seismos tan devastadores como el dc diciembre de Sin embargo, a la inestabilidad geologica se anaden las turbulencias geopollticas: Ha sido dominada intermitentemente por asirios y cimerios, escitas y medos, persas y macedonios romanos y bizantinos, arabes y seleucidas, mongoles y turcomanos, otomanos y safavidas.
Unas gigantescas serpientes de nubes negras desenrollan en el cielo sus monstruosos anillos, se precipitan desde las cumbres enfrentadas y se acometen furiosamente. Rugen con voz atronadora y nublan por completo la claridad del sol. Entonces el dios ofendido les asesta unos formidables golpes con su espada de rayo. Las corta en pequenos pedazos y libera en forma de trombas de agua todo el ratio de la tierra, toda la humedad dc los rios, que han engullido glotonamente durante las horas de calor. Es el lugar donde reposa el apuesto heroe del que se encapricho antano Chamiram, la voluptuosa reina Semiramis.
Y fue justamente una cancion celebrando los encantos de Ara, el hermoso rey de Armenia, lo que le dio a conocer el nombre y el retrato de ese desconocido al que se propuso seducir. Sin embargo, el, fiel a su esposa Nevart, rechazo las apremiantes proposiciones de la reina. Los ejercitos asirios invadieron Armenia y, a pesar de las instrucciones de Chamiram, mataron a Ara, que combatia a la cabeza de sus tropas.
La moral cristiana lo prohlbe, pero la mitologla pagana es mas permisiva. En todo caso, durante la Edad Media, todavla se confiaban los heroes muertos a la benevolencia de esos genios; y, en pleno siglo XX, el novelista Shahan Shahnur, superviviente del genocidio, publico en su exilio parisino una recopilacion titulada La traicion de los aralez. Esta tierra de leyendas, en la encrucijada entre Asia Menor, Iran y Siria, acogio de buen grado las divinidades extranjeras.
Sin embargo, el centro y el norte del pals, la llanura del Aras, permanecieron obstinadamente cerradas al anuncio del Evangelio. En vano se esforzaban los predicadores en expulsar a los demonios de la idolatrla: Hizo falta un espectacular milagro para arrancar al rey Tirldates de las tinieblas de su error.
El monarca acababa de ordenar la decapitacion de cuarenta religiosas, companeras de la bella Hripsime, que se le habla negado, cuando sintio que su espalda se erizaba de pelos de cerdo. Liberado de la fosa, Gregorio enterro a las vlrgenes martires y predico en la ciudad real de Vagharshapat una catequesis de setenta dlas. Tirldates fue recuperando poco a poco la position vertical y el uso de las manos.
Este partio entonces para Cesarea de Capadocia, donde fue consagrado obispo. A su regreso, el rey se hizo bautizar junto con todo su pueblo y su ejercito. Armenia se convirtio asl, en los initios del siglo IV, en el primer Estado cristiano del mundo. Dependiente por entero de la persona del rey, esa conversion, que los armenios consideran hoy como su herencia mas valiosay cuyo decimoseptimo centenario celebraron enel , se encontro expuesta durante mucho tiempo a todo tipo de amenazas, interiores y exteriores.
Las mentalidades, las costumbres y los ritos paganos estaban profundamente arraigados, no solo en las zonas rurales, sino tambien entre la mas alta aristocracia. Arrastrados por sus esposas y concubinas, los prlncipes rechazaron los usos cristianos que deseaba instaurar el rey. Se cuenta que Tirldates, empujado a la abdication en , murio envenenado poco tiempo despues. Improvisadas a partir del griego o el sirlaco para la celebration de los oficios, las interpretaciones orales dc los libros sagrados no tardaban en olvidarse.
El armenio no se escribla. Tuvieron que pasar cien anos para que un alto funcionario de la cancillerla real, san Mesrop Mashtots, que se consagro a la vida religiosa, decidio crear un alfabeto especial de treinta y seis letras para anotar la lengua national, hasta entonces agrafa. De pronto, el armenio se elevo al nivel de las lenguas de cultura capaces de expresar las ideas mas sutiles y todo el acervo de la ciencia y la sabidurla antigua. Del mismo modo que la brisa soplada por Dios habla secado las aguas del Diluvio, la Palabra inspirada disipo las nieblas de la mitologla.
A imitation de los escribas de Israel, los clerigos adquirieron la costumbre de anotar su historia nacional, que se convirtio en tan valiosa como la del pueblo elegido. Tal es el origen de las numerosas cronicas que figuran en los miles de manuscritos, a menudo suntuosamente iluminados, del Matenadaran de Erevan, templo de la memoria. A1 hilo las conquistas y las anexiones, el antiguo reino de Armenia, que se extendio antano hacia el este desde Anatolia, del Caucaso al Kurdistan, entre el mar Negro y el Caspio, ha quedado reducido a una decima parte de su territorio.
Sin embargo, conserva el recuerdo de los lugares, los siglos y las personas. Mientras Mashtots desplegaba su actividad, una tormenta se cernia sobre los cristianos de Armenia. Tambien los romanos, aliados y protectores del reino, habian adoptado el cristianismo; pero, al otro lado de sus fronteras, los persas sasanidas pretendian imponer la religion de Zoroastro, el culto al fuego sagrado de Ormuz, desde el Oriente Proximo hasta los confines de Asia.
En , los reveses del ejercito romano conllevaron una primera partition de Armenia. En los dos tercios restantes, los persas nombraron reyes armenios leales. No obstante, en la monarquia quedo abolida, y en el soberano persa exigio la apostasia de los principes armenios. De vuelta a su tierra, los renegados, que habian escapado por poco de la deportation a Asia central, tuvieron que hacer penitencia.
El catolicos los absolvio, pero les impuso encabezar una insurrection popular. Se trato de un combate desesperado dcbido a la superioridad militar de los persas y sus elefantes de guerra. Bajo la direction de su caudillo Vardan Mamikonian, la flor de la nobleza fire aplastada en la batalla de Avarair en Aunque el enemigo resulto victorioso, la lucha fire tan encamizada y sanguinaria que se abandonaron todos los planes de conversion forzosa. Los companeros de Vardan fueron canonizados como martires. Otras dos guerras estallaron a continuation, en y , pero la fe armenia permanecio inquebrantable.
Sin duda por esa razon resistio a las diversas dominaciones musulmanas que se sucedieron, con algunas interrupciones sobre todo, entre y desde el siglo VII hasta el siglo XIX. El catolicos se hizo portavoz de su pueblo ante los califas, los emires, los sultanes y los janes. Entre y , unnuevo reino se constituyo en Cilicia, al amparodc los montes TauroyAmanos. Aldisponer de una fachada maritima, la Armenia cilicia pudo relacionarse con las republicas comerciales de Genova y Venecia. Vecinos de los Estados cruzados, los principes armenios casaron a sus hijas con los barones francos establecidos en Oriente.
Credo entonces el entusiasmo por el amor cortes, la teologia escolastica, las ciencias y las tecnicas occidentales; se tradujo el derecho feudal, que pasaba por ser en esa epoca el riltimo grito del buen gobierno. En su intento de defenderse de los mamelucos y sus sucesores, los ayubidas de Egipto y Siria, los reyes cilicios se aliaron con los mogoles que, antes de , todavia no se habian convertido al islam.
Deseaban sorprender al Anticristo por la espalda utilizando a los jinetes de las estepas. Desgraciadamente, los cruzados no comprendieron esa estrategia. Los mogoles se unieron al bando musulman, y todos los principados francos cayeron uno tras otro. Aislado, los armenios tambien acabaron por sucumbir. En , en un momenta en que toda Armenia estaba en manos de las hordas turcomanas seguidoras de Tamerlan, un pequeno grupo de principes y prelados decidieron repatriar el catolicado a la ciudad santa de Vagharshapat, al amparo de la catedral de Ejmiatsin.
Ese regreso a las fuentes en las horas oscuras de la historia triunfo sobre todos los obstaculos e inauguro una larga espera, la de la brisa primaveral que fundiria las escarchas: La esperanza no se ha visto frustrada. Hace veinte anos que Armenia goza de una independencia obtenida sin violencia. Superando el cataclismo del derrumbe sovietico, los armenios han edificado su Estado, instituido su moneda, asegurado los suministros energeticos y emprendido valerosamente la reconstruction de su economla. Es cierto que todavia no han encontrado solution para algunos asuntos graves.
Los habitantes armenios de los montes Karabaj, enclavados en territorio azeri, reclaman el derecho a la seguridad y la autodeterminacion; como represalia, Turquia y Azerbayan han impuesto un bloqueo a Armenia. Semejante busqucda de la armonla es una obra de largo aliento. Al contrario de la education pagana, que hacla del tiro con arco el primer ejercicio de habilidad y reflexion, el santo traductor Mashtots elegla a los disclpulos por la calidad de su aliento. Querla cantantes robustos, capaces de salmodiar sin flaquear de principio a fin del oficio.
La costumbre no se ha perdido. El camino es negro, el camino es noche, vamos sin descanso en sombras sin dia, por siglos y siglos seguimos subiendo los asperos montes, los montes de Armenia. De lejos cargamos tesoros sin precio, el mar de tesoros que en tiempos remotos nuestra alma alumbro en las altas cumbres, los montes de Armenia. Y luego aterrada nuestra caravana, forzada, expoliada y despedazada, reanuda su marcha cargada de heridas por montes de luto, los montes de Armenia.
Fijamos los ojos, llenos de nostalgia, en astros lejanos del confin del cielo y les preguntamos cuando vendra el dia en que seran verdes los montes de Armenia. Que esa recopilacion de simples melodias, que considera como un tesoro de la cultura de su pueblo -y a la que da una forma manuscrita original para que recuerde un pequeiio camet de notas personales tomadas por un musico-, pueda ser una base de trabajo para logros futures.
Como la interpretation de las melodias elegidas es instrumental, quiza sean de utilidad algunas consideraciones los textos y los contextos de este repertorio. La musica de tradition oral de un pueblo que ha carecido de Estado durante siglos no puede tener un caracter homogeneo. Sin embargo, cuando a finales del siglo XIX Komitas decidio estudiarla en profundidad llevando a cabo clasificaciones rigurosas segun criterios de genera, region, circunstancia de ejecucion, acabo por sacar a la luz elementos comunes de caracter intemporal.
Es evidente que todos esos cantos acompanan una historia: Ahora bien, en los ecos heroicos como en el lamento del exiliado o en el homenaje rendido a la belleza de la tierra como en el juego amoroso, el oido atento reconocera algunas constantes. Las escuchamos aqui como otros tantos elementos de una identidad musical fuerte: Solo ha sido armonizada tardiamente por compositores de los siglos XIX y XX como Chujayan 1, 5 y Komitas 8, 9,10,16,18 , quienes adquirieron la categoria de compositores mediante el contacto con las escuela occidentales.
Esa evolution es contemporanea a la eclosion de un renacimiento literario y artistico en ciudades como Constantinopla y Tiflis. Convencidos del valor dc la cultura popular, los poetas y los musicos encuentran en ella una inspiration nueva; y es ante todo a las zonas rurales donde acude Komitas para recopilar respetuosamente las melodias que estudiara y dara a conocer. De la matriz religiosa medieval, solo tenemos aqui un ejemplo.
El instrumento que ocupa el lugar dc la palabra ausentes es, de modo natural, el duduk. Las particulares vibraciones de la lengueta de caha de esa flauta de madera de albaricoquero tienen como caracteristica la sorprendente imitation de la voz humana que grita, canta o llora. Parte integrante del ritual, la musica asocia en los cantos de boda 9 elementos sacros muy antiguos, algunos de los cuales son sin duda anteriores al periodo cristiano, asi como elementos profanos que van desde la danza hasta la description humoristica dc los invitados.
La elevada meseta annenia es una tierra de paso. Objeto de multiples invasiones, los reinos y las ciudades siempre intentaron resistir. Aunque hay pocos cantos guerreros propiamente dichos, abundan los de lucha o resistencia: El amor por la tierra, tenido a menudo de nostalgia, es versificado por los poetas y luego se le pone musica: Y es que el exilio siempre es tragico.
Lo recuerda desde la Edad Media todo un repertorio de lamentos desgarradores. A menudo, ese dolor es abordado por medio de simbolos. El pan del exilio es amargo, y su agua, turbia La musica popular acompana la vida cotidiana de un mundo esencialmente rural. Mi liigado y mis pulmones son llagas ardientes heladas por el viento frio, tan frio Cuando el canto no pone directamente ritmo a las tareas del campo, las integra: La espera inquieta de su mujer 6 expresa el temor a que los trabajos lo agoten Y tambien se lo honra en preludio a la danza que sigue a su evocacion.
La musica popular y aldeana no recurre a interpretes profesionales. Sin embargo, desde la Antigiiedad los gusans , poetas musicos itinerantes o establecidos en la corte han desempenado un papel equivalente al de los aedos y los bardos antiguos dcdicados a cantar las gestas epicas. Esta tradition, que ha evolucionado mucho en el curso de los siglos, se sigue reivindicado en Armenia 11 , donde se confunde a menudo con la de los ashiks, poetas musicos cuyas obras, esencialmente liricas, celebran el amor. El mas celebre de ellos, Sayat Nova, foe apreciado en todo el Caucaso 3.
Sayat Nova era muy aficionado a la kamancha , instrumento de cuerda frotada que emplea un arco de tension manual y se sujeta verticalmente, apoyado en el muslo. Y es que esa escritura nueva permitio la traduction de las obras importantes de las grandes civilizaciones de la epoca y, al mismo tiempo, la eclosion de talentos literarios. La musica, en cambio, no tuvo su Mashtots. En la liturgia antigua o en los himnos y canticos que la puntuan, la transmision oral es la encargada de garantizar la fidelidad del chantre a los codigos fijados por las autoridades religiosas que clasifican los modos ocho en un principio en funcion del calendario liturgico y sus fiestas: Son, mas bien, ayudas mnemotecnicas.
Y el aprendizaje prolongado con un maestro es la fuente del saber musical del giisan o del ashik , interpretes profesionales de la musica profana que reunen en su arte la inspiration poetica y la invention melodica o ritmica. Tigran Chujayan nacio en en Bolis o Polis el unico nombre que las obras armenias dan a la antigua Constantinopla convertida en Estambul , en el seno de una rica familia de artesanos, y conto entre sus maestros en los inicios de su vocation musical a Gabriel Yeranian.
Se formo durante tres anos en el conservatorio de Milan: Sin embargo, fiieron vanos todos sus esfiierzos por convencer a los mecenas de la oportunidad de interpretar las demas enBolis, Paris o Esmirna. Hubo que esperara para que su opera Arshak II serepresentaa por primera vez en Erevan Chujayan murio en la miseria en Su obra debe ponerse en perspectiva con el autentico auge de la cultura armenia en el siglo XIX. Contemporaneo de las luchas y los combates politicos entablados por los imperios de la epoca, Chujayan tiene como objetivo la afirmacion de una idcntidad nacional nueva.
Tanto en Constantinopla como en Tiflis los intelectuales que han estudiando en universidades europeas se apropian entonces de todo un patrimonio y lo marcan con el sello de su propia creation. Junto a las prestigiosas publicaciones literarias donde se expresan los poetas romanticos, realistas y luego simbolistas, empiezan a aparecer revistas musicales.
A ambos los anima un impulso pedagogico y quieren transcribir y adaptai' en notation occidental las melodlas que componen para los poemas de sus contemporaneos. Otros musicos, cuyo nombre no ha sido retenido por la historia, se inscriben en la misma perspectiva e inmortalizan los textos de M. Gabriel Yeranian , primer maestro de Chujayan no vivio lo suficiente para dejar una obra destacada.
Pedagogo organizador de conferencias, creador de dos revistas musicales, fonna parte de esos precursores que quisieron establecer lazos entre el patrimonio musical de su pueblo y la cultura occidental. Algunos de sus cantos seran annonizados y retomados a fmales del siglo XIX por las corales que se crearon en todas las ciudades donde vivlan armenios o interpretados por solistas de renombre. Sayat Nova es el mas emblematico y querido de todos los ashiks del Caucaso. Tras unos initios como aprendiz de tejedor, enseguida renuncia a ese oficio y se perfecciona en el arte musical en Tiflis, ciudad cosmopolita donde aprende diversas lenguas y se fonna con el contacto de varias tradiciones poeticas.
Canta en la corte del rey georgiano Irakli II, quien lo enviara al exilio a orillas del mar Caspio en por razones tan misteriosas como las que alejaron a Ovidio de Augusto Su obra, muy caracteristica del lirismo oriental, esta dedicada ante todo al amor 3. Su poesla crea una lengua propia, tejida de references y rica en metaforas que son concretas o tambien conceptistas y simbolicas. No es casualidad que a Komitas la presente grabacion le otorgue un lugar tin destacado 8,9,10,16,18 , porque es mucho lo que le debe la musica armenia.
Recibio las bases de su formation en Ejmiatsin, sede del patriarca de todos los annenios. Residio en Berlin entre y con el fin de perfeccionar su cultura musical antes de emprender a la mision a la que quiso dedicarse: Recogio de fonna sistematica y rigurosa los cantos de las provincias que recorrio. Los clasifico, analizo, compare y publico en revistas o los presento en conferencias dictadas ante publicos muy diversos Tiflis, Berlin, Paris, Ginebra.
Se establecio en Constantinopla en y participo activamente en la rica vida cultural de la ciudad, donde entablo amistad con escritores e intelectuales. En fue deportado al mismo tiempo que ellos. Ese teorico de reconocido talento musical sobrevivira gracias a la intervention de algunos diplomaticos, que exigieron su regreso.
Sin embargo, su obra permanecera inacabada. Llevado a Paris, donde fire intemado despues de la guerra, no volvera a recuperar la salud mental, definitivamente quebrada como consecuencia de la tragedia vivida por su pueblo. Lo contrario del arte no es la felicidad, es la indiferencia. Lo contrario de la fe no es la herejia, es la indiferencia. Y lo contrario de la vida no es la muerte, es la indiferencia.
Elie Wiesel Todos los 24 de abril el pueblo armenio conmemora con un largo dla de duelo en su propio pals y en la diaspora el aniversario del genocidio sufrido a partir de a manos de los oficiales turcos del Imperio otomano, un trauma nacional que todavla no se ha curado ni ha obtenido el suficiente reconocimiento por parte de la comunidad intemacional. Las cifras oficiales y las atrocidades padecidas en aquel tragico intento de exterminio sistematico son tan espantosas como desconocidas: El resultado lire la desaparicion en pocos anos de dos tercios de la poblacion armenia que residla en aquella epoca en el gran Imperio otomano.
La actual Republica de Turqula no niega las matanzas, pero rechaza toda responsabilidad y no acepta el termino genocidio'. Las autoridades turcas temlan que la poblacion armenia, cristiana como sus adversarios rusos, se aliara con los invasores y abriera un nuevo frente de guerra en la retaguardia del imperio. El pueblo armenio tenia razones mas que justificadas para aliarse con los msos y librarse de la opresion ejercida por las autoridades del sultanato: Los armenios, que pedlan la modernization de las instituciones y el reconocimiento de su identidad, fueron castigados duramente: La region del lago Van, en el corazon de la nation historica de Armenia, quedo devastada, sus iglesias quemadas o convertidas en mezquitas, y mas de poblados desaparecieron por completo dc los mapas.
Esos hechos de finales del siglo XIX fueron precursores de la gran matanza que llegarla despues, cuando los oficiales ultranacionalistas del movimiento de los Jovenes Turcos, tras dar un golpe de Estado y derrocar a Abdul Hamid II en , consiguieron imponer su ideologla, el turanismo, que buscaba la creation de una nueva gran potencia asiatica, la Gran Turqula, la union de todos los pueblos de lengua turca desde las costas del Egeo hasta las estepas del centre de Asia y China. Conscientes del lento e irremediable desmembramiento del Imperio otomano, los Jovenes Turcos intentaron imponer por la fuerza una politica que al menos convirtiera el territorio de Anatolia en un territorio turco racialmente homogeneo y para lo cual los armenios constitulan el primer pueblo que debla eliminarse: Ese episodio es conocido como las matanzas de Cilicia.
Ante esa amenaza constante y la violencia ejercida contra cllos por parte del gobierno turco, el 7 de abril de , en el marco de los acontecimientos y los combates de la Primera Guerra Mundial entre los ejercitos turco y ruso, los armenios de la region oriental de Van se sublevaron y proclamaron un gobierno armenio independiente.
Los Jovenes Turcos y, en concreto, el gran visir del sultanato, Taalat Pacha, aprovecharon entonces ese pretexto para llevar a cabo una operation de represalia a gran escala iniciada el 24 de abril de con la orden de deportation y ejecucion de entre y intelectuales y proceres de las elites armenias de Estambul, el denominado Domingo Rojo. El gobierno turco amenazo con sanciones y destituyo a los fiincionarios u oficiales del regimen que se negaron a cumplir las ordenes de deportation o ejecucion.
La Ley Provisional de Deportation del 29 de mayo de fijo las pautas de dicha deportation y tambien del expolio de la poblacion armenia: Los documentos y los testigos directos de los hechos relatan un cumulo de atrocidades: Muchas mujeres fueron violadas, vendidas como esclavas y despues convertidas a la fuerza. En estos ultimos anos ha estallado en Turqula cierta polemica porque muchos turcos han descubierto con estupor que descienden de mujeres cristianas armenias obligadas a convertirse al islamismo durante esos acontecimientos.
Los campos de concentration, a los que llegaban exhaustos y al llmite de sus fuerzas los deportados, se encontraban repartidos a lo largo de dos ejes en direction al sur: De los dos millones y medio de armenios del Imperio otomano, alrededor de un millon y medio desaparecio y el resto huyo y se disperso por el mundo en lo que hoy constituye la diaspora armenia.
A pesar dc la cobertura dc la prensa international, una Europa enzarzada en los combates de la Primera Guerra Mundial no tuvo energlas para ocuparse seriamente de la cuestion armenia. Fueron juzgados y condenados a muerte in absentia, puesto que huyeron del Imperio al concluir la guerra. El tratado de Sevres firmado en entre las potencias vencedoras y el nuevo gobiemo del Imperio previo la extradition de los responsables de las matanzas para que fueran juzgados; pero solo algunos oficiales y politicos turcos fueron transferidos y retenidos en Malta durante tres anos mientras los investigadores buscaban la documentation incriminatoria en los archivos de Estambul, Londres, Paris y Washington.
Estas y otras medidas encaminadas a castigar a los responsables de las matanzas quedaron paralizadas como consecuencia de los conflictos internos turcos y el cambio de regimen provocado por la llegada al poder de Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, que culminarla con la abolition del sultanato y la proclamation de la Republica de Turqula El tribunal interaliado encargado de juzgar y zanjar definitivamente la cuestion segun lo estipulado por las clausulas del tratado de Sevres anulado en dejo de actuar, y los detenidos fueron devueltos a Turqula en un intercambio de prisioneros en el que fueron liberados diversos ciudadanos de britanicos retenidos por las fuerzas kemalistas.
La impunidad implicita en la anulacion del tribunal interaliado previsto por el tratado de Sevres hizo reaccionar a la Federation Revolucionaria Armenia, que activo la Operation Nemesis por el nombre de la antigua diosa griega, la retribution divina , la creation de una celula guerrillera para asesinar a los responsables turcos del genocidio armenio all!
Tras la elaboration de una lista negra de mas de dos centenares de nombres, los guerrilleros de Nemesis acabaron entre y con algunos de los politicos y oficiales dc los Jovenes Turcos que mas se hablan destacado en la persecution y el exterminio de armenios. Las autoridades alemanas juzgaron a Tehlirian bajo la acusacion de asesinato, pero lo absolvieron por razones del trauma vivido.
La Republica de Armenia, cuya capital es Erevan, ya no forma parte de la orbita del Caucaso sovietico, y cuenta en la actualidad con una poblacion de tres millones y medio de habitantes; la diaspora armenia, consecuencia directa del genocidio, se reparte por todo el planeta y en ella destacan nombres como los de los cantantes Charles Aznavour y Cher, el del campeon de ajedrez Gari Kasparov, el del tenista Andre Agassi, el del actor Fran? Rusia, los Estados Unidos, Francia, Iran, Ucrania, Georgia, Siria, Libano y Argentina cuentan con las comunidades mas numerosas, y es en esos palses donde, a partir dc la decada de y con mucha lentitud, la opinion publica international ha empezado a tomar conciencia de los tragicos hechos del genocidio.
En Europa, el pals con mas supervivientes de las matanzas es Francia, donde soy son una comunidad que ronda el medio millon de personas. Es ahl donde aparecen las iniciativas para reconocer oficialmente el genocidio. El Parlamento Europeo lo hizo el 18 dc junio de ; y Francia cuenta desde el con una ley que lo reconoce y tambien ha realizado diversos intentos legislatives para penalizar su negation: Serbia e Islandia han presentado proyectos dc ley en sus respectivos parlamentos para reconocerlo oficialmente. De todos modos, en el , diputados finnaron una motion para reconocer el genocidio armenio.
Tampoco el Estado de Israel lo ha reconocido oficialmente como genocidio. En el tuvo lugar en la Kneset la primera discusion directa y franca sobre este tema, y se encargo a una comision que profundizara sobre el asunto antes de tomar una decision acerca del termino genocidio. El profesor Bauer tambien opina que el llamado genocidio armenio no empezo en , sino antes, en la epoca del sultan Abdul Hamid II, con las matanzas de y de Cilicia en Sin embargo, la Fundacion Elie Wiesel para la Humanidad hizo publica en el una carta firmada por 53 premios Nobel reafirmando la conclusion de la Asociacion Internacional de Investigadores sobre Genocidios, que establecio que las matanzas de constituyeron claramente un genocidio.
En Turqula, la cuestion armenia no esta resuelta ni mucho menos, y el gobiemo no escatima esfuerzos en el piano academico, diplomatico, politico y judicial para eliminar el termino genocidio de las descripciones de las matanzas padecidas por la poblacion armenia. A pesar de ello, en ese mismo , el presidente de Turqula Recep Tayyip Erdogan propuso al gobiemo de la Republica de Armenia la creation de una comision oficial encargada de establecer la verdad de las matanzas de , forzado seguramente por la exigencia europea del reconocimiento del genocidio armenio como paso previo a una posible adhesion a la Union Europea.
A pesar de las dificultades que supone todavla asumir la responsabilidad de un episodio tan tragico y terrible como el genocidio armenio, un grupo de intelectuales turcos colgo en la Red en diciembre del una petition de disculpa a tltulo personal: Tambien hay que decir que, como respuesta, otro grupo colgo en la Red un documento opuesto que consiguio un numero mas elevado de firmas, asl como la adhesion del primer ministro, con lo que se produjo abiertamente en el pals un prolimdo debate sobre la cuestion.
Todo aquello de lo que se habla existe. En Erevan, todos los 24 de abril, ante la presencia siempre imponente del monte Ararat, el monumento que rodea la llama etema en recuerdo de todas las vlctimas inocentes del genocidio se llena de flores. Que la musica de este disco sea una mas. Reeditado en la antologia Fragments d'Armenie, Paris, Omnibus, , pp. Miniature anonyme perse, Noe y sus tres hijos Sem, Cam y Jafet desembarcan y repueblan la tierra. El historiador Movses Jorenatsi o Moises de Jorene escribe en tres volumenes su gran Historia de Armenia , donde cuenta la leyenda de Haik, padre de la nacion armenia.
En ella lo presenta como hijo de Togarma, hijo de Gomer, hijo de Jafet, hijo de Noe. Segun Jorenatsi, Haik huye de Babilonia cuando el tirano Bel tambien llamado Nemrod es proclamado rey; emigra entonces hasta la region del monte Ararat donde, con un grapo de personas, fundo la ciudad de Haikashen. Bel le exige vasallaje, pero Haik se niega y entablan un combate. En el curso de una batalla mltica, Haik dispara una flecha con su gran arco y mata al tirano.
La region de la victoria de Haik tomara su nombre, el Hayastan. El ano de esa victoria se considera el primer aho del calendario armenio. Los historiadores annenios medievales situaron esa efemerides el 11 de agosto de a. Tiempos antiguos Las fuentes hititas del siglo XV a. Posible llegada, con la invasion de los pueblos del mar siglo XIII a. Estela asiria de Tiglat Pileser I a. Fundacion de la fortaleza de Erebuni Erevan por parte del rey Argishti I.
Campanas del emperador asirio Sargon II contra el reino de Urartu. Desaparicion de reino de Urartu a causa de los ataques de las tribus escitas por el norte y los persas por el sur. Las tribus tracio-frigias de los armenios se instalan definitivamente en el territorio de Urartu y se fiisionan con los habitantes originales, aunque imponiendo su propia lengua. Rebelion de los armenios contra los ocupantes persas. Dario I aplasta la revuelta y da testimonio de ello en la celebre inscription trilingue de Behistun.
El geografo e historiador griego Hecateo de Mileto a. Tiempos clasicos a. Los diez mil soldados griegos de Jenofonte en retirada hacia el mar Negro cruzan el territorio de la satrapla armenia de Orontes. Adoption de la cultura helenlstica. Creation del reino armenio de Tsopk. Conquista del reino de Tsopk por parte del Imperio seleucida. Independencia de los territories armenios del Imperio seleucida. El rey Artaxias I funda un reino armenio-helenlstico que amplla sus fronteras y establece una nueva capital en Artashat.
Tigranes II el Grande convierte Armenia en una gran potencia regional. Sus conquistas reunen dentro de Armenia las costas del mar Caspio con las del Mcditerraneo, domina Cilicia, la alta Mesopotamia, el noreste de Iran, Siria y Llbano. Funda Tigranocerta, la nueva capital. Los romanos se inquietan ante el poder de Tigranes y lo combaten. El general Luculo conquista Tigranocerta y obliga a Tigranes II a renunciar a la mayor parte de sus conquistas y aliarse con los romanos contra los partos.
Campanas de Pompeyo en Armenia. Finalmente es depuesto y exiliado a Egipto, donde sera ejecutado. Armenia se convierte en protectorado romano. Romanos y partos se reparten los territories armenios. Armenia tendra un rey de la dinastia real parta, pero sera aliada de Roma. Tiridates I, coronado rey de Armenia por Neron. Sobre Armenia reinaran de forma intermitente los principes de la dinastia arsacida o arshakuni. Armenia es convierte en la primera nation que adopta el cristianismo como religion oficial.
Partition de Annenia entre Roma y Persia. El monje Mesrop Mashtots crea el alfabeto armenio. La Armenia persa convertida en satrapia: Intentos de convertir a los armenios por la fuerza a la religion mazdeista. Resistencia y lucha de los armenios contra la opresion persa y la persecution religiosa, acaudillados por Vardan y Vahan Mamikonian. El historiador Agatangelo fija la doctrina oficial de la Iglesia armenia en su Historia de los armenios o Historiay vida de san Gregorio.
Movses Jorenatsi, considerado el padre de la historia armenia o el Herodoto armenio, escribe su monumental Historia de Armenia. Segunda division de Annenia entre Persia y el Imperio bizantino. Invasion arabe de Armenia. Caida de la capital, Dvin, en manos de los arabes. La conquista arabe provoca la ruptura de los lazos con el Imperio bizantino y el alejamiento dc los postulados teologicos de la Iglesia armenia con respecto a la Iglesia oficial de Constantinopla. Tratado arabe-armenio entre Theodores Rshtuni y el califa omeya Muawiya para recuperar, bajo el poder de los arabes, cierto grado de independencia que durara hasta el siglo VIII.
Revueltas contra la opresion arabe. Los arabes nombran a Ashot Bagratuni gobernador de Armenia. Ashot Bagratuni coronado rey de Armenia. Initio de la dinastia Bagratuni, que reinara hasta El poeta mistico, teologo y filosofo Gregorio de Narek escribe su Libro de las lamentaciones. El Imperio bizantino toma Ani y anexiona Armenia a sus dominios. Las tribus turcas selyucidas arrebatan Ani a los bizantinos.
Los selyucidas derrotan al Imperio bizantino y extienden su imperio desde el centre de Asia hasta el Bosforo. Armenia qucda engullida en el. En algunas provincias, sobreviven unos pocos principados armenios semiindependientes, como el reino de Cilicia, llamado la Pequena Armenia. Intentos de union entre la Iglesia griega y la armenia. El obispo de Tarso es Narses Lambronatsi o de Lambron , uno de los grandes escritores y traductores armenios. Bajo la protection del reino independiente de Georgia, la familia de los principes Zakarian se alza contra los selyucidas en Armenia oriental.
Ayuda a los Caballeros cristianos europeos de la tercera cruzada. Llegada de los invasores mongoles. Alianza de Cilicia con los invasores mongoles. El rey Hetum I viaja a Karakorum. Marco Polo cruza la Pequena y la Gran Annenia. Tras el dominio mogol, Armenia cae en manos de Tamerlan. Los mamelucos de Egipto conquistan el reino armenio de Cilicia. La santa sede de la Iglesia armenia se traslada de Cilicia a Ejmiatsin. Entre otomanos, persas y rusos El Imperio otomano dominara la region de la Transcaucasia para frenar las aspiraciones expansionistas de la dinastia persa de los safavidas.
Primera edition impresa de un libro annenio en Venecia, el Urbatagirk de Hakob Meghapart, un compendio de oraciones, mitos, remedios contra las enfermedades y citas de libros historicos. Tratado de Amasia, primera partition de Armenia entre la Turquia otomana y la Persia safavida. El sha Abas de Persia deporta a Primera imprenta armenia en Ispahan.
Segunda partition de Armenia entre Turquia y Persia. Primera biblia armenia impresa en Amsterdam. Fundacion de la congregation armenia catolica de mejitaristas en la isla de San Lazzaro de Venecia. Revuelta armenia contra el dominio persa, dirigida por David Bek. Fundacion de la editorial Ejmiatsin, la primera de Annenia. Publication del Vorogait parats, un borrador de constitution para una Armenia independiente.