As a rule, vendors of purpose-bred animals e. The use of purpose-bred and preconditioned animals is therefore preferable when consistent with the research, teaching, and testing objectives. In general, animals used for scientific purposes should not be obtained from pet stores or pet distributors due to the unknown or uncontrolled background of animals from these sources and the potential for introducing health risks to personnel and other facility animals.
Breeding colonies should be established based on need and managed according to principles of animal reduction such as cryopreservation for rodent stocks or strains Robinson et al. Transportation of animals is governed by a number of US regulatory agencies and international bodies.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and USDA enforce regulations to prevent the introduction, transmission, or spread of communicable diseases and regulate the importation of any animal or animal product capable of carrying a zoonotic disease. Institutions should contact appropriate authorities to ensure compliance with any relevant statutes and other animal transportation requirements that must be met for animals to cross international boundaries, including those not of the country of final destination.
Animal transportation may be intrainstitutional, interinstitutional, or between a commercial or noncommercial source and a research facility. For wildlife, transportation may occur between the capture site and field holding facilities. Careful planning for all types of transportation should occur to ensure animal safety and well-being. Movement of animals within or between sites or institutions should be planned and coordinated by responsible and well-trained persons at the sending and receiving sites to minimize animal transit time or delays in receipt.
Shipping should be coordinated to ensure that animals arrive during normal business hours or, if delivery occurs outside of this time, that someone is available to receive them. Defining and delegating responsibility to the appropriate persons, who are knowledgeable about the needs of the species being shipped, will help ensure effective communication and planning of animal transport AVMA All animals in transit within and between institutions or jurisdictions should be accompanied by appropriate documentation to minimize delays in shipping and receipt.
This action will ensure that effective quarantine practices are implemented for incoming animals and address any special requirements needed to ensure animal well-being Otto and Tolwani Special considerations may be necessary for transporting animals during certain phases of their life or in certain conditions, such as pregnant, perinatal, and geriatric animals; animals with preexisting medical conditions e. Although ensuring animal biosecurity during transportation is always important, it is of particular importance for immunocompromised, genetically modified, and specific pathogen-free rodents Jacoby and Lindsey For these animals, reinforced disposable shipping containers with filter-protected ventilation openings and internal food and water sources help ensure that microbial contamination does not occur during transit.
Commercial vendors are experienced in animal transport and typically use dedicated transport systems and protocols to minimize microbiologic contamination.
Can exercise make you ill?
Risks due to in-transit microbial contamination of shipping container surfaces can be reduced by decontaminating the surfaces before placement of the containers in clean sites of animal facilities NRC , Transportation of animals in private vehicles is discouraged because of potential animal biosecurity, safety, health, and liability risks for the animals, personnel, and institution. For aquatic species and amphibians, special considerations are required for transportation in an aqueous or sufficiently moist environment, and special attention should be given to avoiding temperature extremes for poikilotherms.
In all cases, appropriate loading and unloading facilities should be provided for the safe and secure transfer of animals at an institution. Facilities and procedures should be in place to help ensure that the environment at the site does not pose risks to animal well-being or personnel safety. During times of extreme temperatures animal transport may be detrimental to animal well-being and therefore may not be possible unless an appropriately heated or cooled means of transportation is available Robertshaw ; Schrama et al.
Disease prevention is an essential component of comprehensive veterinary medical care and biosecurity programs. Effective preventive medicine enhances the research value of animals by maintaining healthy animals and minimizing nonprotocol sources of variation associated with disease and inapparent infection, thus minimizing animal waste and potential effects on well-being. Preventive medicine programs consist of various combinations of policies, procedures, and equipment related to quarantine and stabilization and the separation of animals by species, source, and health status.
Animal biosecurity refers to all measures taken to identify, contain, prevent, and eradicate known or unknown infections that may cause clinical disease or alter physiologic and behavioral responses or otherwise make the animals unsuitable for research. Animal biosecurity practices should be applied to all species, but they are most important when housing large numbers of animals in intensive housing conditions e. Limiting exposure of animals to infectious disease agents requires consideration of physical plant layout and operational practices.
Separation of clean and soiled caging and equipment, and sometimes the associated staff, is often fundamental to success. Animal biosecurity includes all measures to control known or unknown infections in laboratory animals. A successful animal biosecurity program incorporates a number of elements: Related components include procedures for evaluating and selecting appropriate animal suppliers these may include quarantine and determination of animal health status if unknown ; treatment of animals or their products at entry to minimize disease risks e. Additional details pertaining to these topics are available in the sections of Chapter 2 that deal with occupational health and safety.
Quarantine is the separation of newly received animals from those already in the facility, in a way that prevents potential spread of contaminants, until the health and possibly the microbial status of the newly received animals have been determined. Transportation can be stressful and may induce recrudescence of subclinical infections harbored by an animal.
ANIMAL PROCUREMENT AND TRANSPORTATION
An effective quarantine program minimizes the risk of introduction of pathogens into an established colony. The veterinary medical staff should implement procedures for evaluating the health and, if appropriate, the pathogen status of newly received animals, and the procedures should reflect acceptable veterinary medical practice and federal and state regulations applicable to zoonoses Butler et al.
Effective quarantine procedures are particularly helpful in limiting human exposure to zoonotic infections from nonhuman primates, such as mycobacterial infections, which necessitate specific guidelines for handling of these animals Lerche et al. Information from suppliers about animal quality should be sufficient to enable a veterinarian to establish the length of quarantine, define the potential risks to personnel and animals in the colony, determine whether therapy is required before animals are released from quarantine, and, in the case of rodents, determine whether rederivation cesarean or embryo transfer is necessary to free the animals of specific pathogens.
Rodents may not require quarantine if data from the vendor or provider are sufficiently current, complete, and reliable to define the health status of the incoming animals and if the potential for exposure to pathogens during transit is considered. When quarantine is indicated, animals from one shipment should be handled separately or be physically separated from animals from other shipments to preclude transfer of infectious agents between groups.
Depending on the health status of the colony animals and consistent with the animal biosecurity program in place, rodents or other animals being moved outside an animal facility for procedures e. Regardless of whether the animals are quarantined, newly received animals should be given a period for physiologic, behavioral, and nutritional acclimation before their use Obernier and Baldwin The length of time for acclimation will depend on the type and duration of animal transportation, the species, and the intended use of the animals. For animals not typically housed in research settings, consideration should be given to providing means to assist with their acclimation e.
The need for an acclimation period has been demonstrated in mice, rats, guinea pigs, nonhuman primates, and goats, and time for acclimation is likely important for other species as well Capitanio et al. Physical separation of animals by species is recommended to prevent interspecies disease transmission and to eliminate the potential for anxiety and physiologic and behavioral changes due to interspecies conflict Arndt et al. Such separation is usually accomplished by housing different species in separate rooms, but in some instances it may be possible with cubicles, laminar flow units, cages that have filtered air or separate ventilation, or isolators.
It may also be acceptable to house different species in the same room—for example, two species that have a similar pathogen status and are behaviorally compatible Pritchett-Corning et al. In some species subclinical or latent infections can cause clinical disease if transmitted to another species. A few examples may serve as a guide in determining the need for separate housing by species:. Intraspecies separation may be essential when animals obtained from multiple sites or sources, either commercial or institutional, differ in pathogen status—for example, with respect to rat theilovirus in rats, mouse hepatitis virus in mice, bacterial gill disease in rainbow trout, Pasteurella multocida in rabbits, Macacine herpesvirus 1 B virus in macaque species, and Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae in swine.
All animals should be observed for signs of illness, injury, or abnormal behavior by a person trained to recognize such signs. As a rule, such observation should occur at least daily, but more frequent observations may be required, such as during postoperative recovery, when animals are ill or have a physical deficit, or when animals are approaching a study endpoint. Professional judgment should be used to ensure that the frequency and character of observations minimize risks to individual animals and do not compromise the research for which the animals are used.
Appropriate procedures should be in place for disease surveillance and diagnosis. Unexpected deaths and signs of illness, distress, or other deviations from normal in animals should be reported promptly and investigated, as necessary, to ensure appropriate and timely delivery of veterinary medical care.
Animals that show signs of a contagious disease should be isolated from healthy animals. If an entire room or enclosure of animals is known or believed to be exposed to an infectious agent e. Procedures for disease prevention, diagnosis, and therapy should be those currently accepted in veterinary and laboratory animal practice. Access to diagnostic laboratory services facilitates veterinary medical care and can include gross and microscopic pathology, hematology, microbiology, parasitology, clinical chemistry, molecular diagnostics, and serology.
If a disease or infectious agent is identified in a facility or colony, the choice of therapy should be made by the veterinarian in consultation with the investigator. If the animal is to remain in the study, the selected treatment plan should be therapeutically sound and, when possible, interfere minimally with the research process. Subclinical microbial infections see Appendix A , Pathology, Clinical Pathology, and Parasitology occur frequently in conventionally maintained rodents but can also occur in facilities designed and maintained for production and use of pathogen-free rodents if the microbial barrier is breached.
Examples of infectious agents that can be subclinical but that may induce immunologic changes or alter physiologic, pharmacologic, or toxicologic responses are noroviruses, parvoviruses, mouse hepatitis virus, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, and Helicobacter spp. Scientific objectives of a particular protocol, the consequences of infection in a specific strain of rodent, the potential for zoonotic disease, and the adverse effects that infectious agents may have on other animals or protocols in a facility should determine the characteristics of rodent health surveillance programs and strategies for keeping rodents free of specific pathogens.
The principal methods for detecting microbial infections in animal populations are serologic tests e. Transplantable tumors, hybridomas, cell lines, blood products, and other biologic materials can be sources of both murine and human viruses that can contaminate rodents or pose risks to laboratory personnel Nicklas et al. Because health monitoring programs are dependent on the size and complexity of the Program, the species involved, and the institutional research focus, it is beyond the scope of the Guide to go into details about health monitoring programs for all species; additional references are in Appendix A under Disease Surveillance, Diagnosis, and Treatment; Pathology, Clinical Pathology, and Parasitology; and Species-Specific References.
Healthy, well-cared-for animals are a prerequisite for good-quality animal-based science. To be effective in providing clinical care, the veterinarian should be familiar with the species and various uses of animals in the institutional research, teaching, testing, or production programs and have access to medical and experimental treatment records. The responsibility for communicating these concerns rests with all those involved with animal care and use. Well-planned experiments with clearly delineated scientific and humane endpoints will help to ensure that a contingency plan is in place for problems that may arise during the study see Chapter 2 , Experimental and Humane Endpoints.
Standard operating procedures SOPs may be developed for recurrent health conditions to expedite treatment. Recurrent or significant problems involving experimental animal health should be communicated to the IACUC, and all treatments and outcomes should be documented USDA Procedures must be in place to provide for emergency veterinary care both during and outside of regularly scheduled hours. Such procedures must enable animal care and research staff to make timely reports of animal injury, illness, or death. In the case of a pressing health problem, if the responsible person e. Medical records are a key element of the veterinary care program and are considered critical for documenting animal well-being as well as tracking animal care and use at a facility.
A veterinarian should be involved in establishing, reviewing, and overseeing medical and animal use records Field et al. All those involved in animal care and use must comply with federal laws and regulations regarding human and veterinary drugs and treatments. Drug records and storage procedures should be reviewed during facility inspections. Successful surgical outcomes require appropriate attention to presurgical planning, personnel training, anesthesia, aseptic and surgical technique, assessment of animal well-being, appropriate use of analgesics, and animal physiologic status during all phases of a protocol involving surgery and postoperative care see Appendix A , Anesthesia, Pain, and Surgery.
The individual impact of those factors will vary according to the complexity of procedures involved and the species of animal used. A team approach to a surgical project often increases the likelihood of a successful outcome by providing input from persons with different expertise Brown and Schofield ; Brown et al. Surgical outcomes should be continually and thoroughly assessed to ensure that appropriate procedures are followed and timely corrective changes are instituted. Modification of standard techniques may be required for instance, in aquatic or field surgery , but should not compromise the well-being of the animals.
In the event of modification, close assessment of outcomes may have to incorporate criteria other than clinical morbidity and mortality. Such assessments rely on continuing communication among technical staff, investigators, veterinarians, and the IACUC. Researchers conducting surgical procedures must have appropriate training to ensure that good surgical technique is practiced—that is, asepsis, gentle tissue handling, minimal dissection of tissue, appropriate use of instruments, effective hemostasis, and correct use of suture materials and patterns Brown et al.
Training may have to be tailored to accommodate the wide range of educational backgrounds frequently encountered in research settings. Technical staff performing rodent surgery may have had little formal training in surgical techniques and asepsis and may require general surgical training as well as training for the specific techniques they are expected to perform Stevens and Dey The IACUC, together with the AV, is responsible for determining that personnel performing surgical procedures are appropriately qualified and trained in the procedures Anderson Presurgical planning should include input from all members of the surgical team e.
- Vibro-impact Dynamics.
- Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. 8th edition..
- Veterinary Care - Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals - NCBI Bookshelf?
The surgical plan should identify personnel, their roles and training needs, and equipment and supplies required for the procedures planned Cunliffe-Beamer ; the location and nature of the facilities in which the procedures will be conducted; and perioperative animal health assessment and care Brown and Schofield A veterinarian should be involved in discussions of the selection of anesthetic agents and doses as well as the plan for perioperative analgesic use.
If a nonsterile part of an animal, such as the gastrointestinal tract, is to be surgically exposed or if a procedure is likely to cause immunosuppression, preoperative antibiotics may be appropriate Klement et al. Presurgical planning should specify the requirements for postsurgical monitoring, care, and recordkeeping, including the personnel who will perform these duties. The investigator and veterinarian share responsibility for ensuring that postsurgical care is appropriate. Unless an exception is specifically justified as an essential component of the research protocol and approved by the IACUC, aseptic surgery should be conducted in dedicated facilities or spaces.
Most bacteria are carried on airborne particles or fomites, so surgical facilities should be maintained and operated in a manner that ensures cleanliness and minimizes unnecessary traffic AORN ; Bartley If it is necessary to use an operating room for other purposes, it is imperative that the room be returned to an appropriate level of hygiene before its use for major survival surgery.
Generally, agricultural animals maintained for biomedical research should undergo surgery with techniques and in facilities compatible with the guidelines set forth in this section. However, some minor and emergency procedures commonly performed in clinical veterinary practice and in commercial agricultural settings may take place under field conditions. Surgical procedures are categorized as major or minor and, in the laboratory setting, can be further divided into survival and nonsurvival. As a general guideline, major survival surgery e.
Animals recovering from these minor procedures typically do not show significant signs of postoperative pain, have minimal complications, and return to normal function in a relatively short time. When attempting to categorize a particular surgical procedure, the following should be considered: Laparoscopic surgeries and some procedures associated with neuroscience research e. For example, laparoscopic techniques with minimal associated trauma and sequelae e. Whether a laparoscopic procedure is deemed major or minor should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis by the veterinarian and IACUC.
Emergency situations sometimes require immediate surgical attention under less than ideal conditions. For example, if an animal maintained outdoors needs surgical attention, movement to a surgical facility might be impractical or pose an unacceptable risk to the animal. Such situations often require more intensive aftercare and may pose a greater risk of postoperative complications. The appropriate course of action requires veterinary medical judgment. In nonsurvival surgery, an animal is euthanized before recovery from anesthesia. It may not be necessary to follow all the techniques outlined in this section if nonsurvival surgery is performed but, at a minimum, the surgical site should be clipped, the surgeon should wear gloves, and the instruments and surrounding area should be clean Slattum et al.
For nonsurvival procedures of extended duration, attention to aseptic technique may be more important in order to ensure stability of the model and a successful outcome. Aseptic technique is used to reduce microbial contamination to the lowest possible practical level Mangram et al. No procedure, piece of equipment, or germicide alone can achieve that objective Schonholtz The contribution and importance of each practice varies with the procedure. Regardless of the species, aseptic technique includes preparation of the patient, such as hair or feather removal and disinfection of the operative site Hofmann ; preparation of the surgeon, such as the provision of appropriate surgical attire, face masks, and sterile surgical gloves Chamberlain and Houang ; Pereira et al.
While the species of animal may influence the manner in which principles of aseptic technique are achieved Brown ; Cunliffe-Beamer ; Gentry and French , inadequate or improper technique may lead to subclinical infections that can cause adverse physiologic and behavioral responses Beamer ; Bradfield et al.
Introduction | Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals | The National Academies Press
General principles of aseptic technique should be followed for all survival surgical procedures ACLAM Specific sterilization methods should be selected on the basis of the physical characteristics of the materials to be sterilized Callahan et al. Autoclaving and plasma and gas sterilization are effective methods most commonly used to sterilize instruments and materials.
Alternative methods, used primarily for rodent surgery, include liquid chemical sterilants and dry heat sterilization. Liquid chemical sterilants should be used with appropriate contact times and instruments should be rinsed with sterile water or saline before use. Bead or dry heat sterilizers are an effective and convenient means of rapidly sterilizing the working surfaces of surgical instruments but care should be taken to ensure that the instrument surfaces have cooled sufficiently before touching animal tissues to minimize the risk of burns.
Alcohol is neither a sterilant nor a high-level disinfectant Rutala but may be acceptable for some procedures if prolonged contact times are used Huerkamp Careful monitoring and timely attention to problems increase the likelihood of a successful surgical outcome Kuhlman Monitoring includes routine evaluation of anesthetic depth and physiologic functions and conditions, such as body temperature, cardiac and respiratory rates and pattern Flegal et al. Use of balanced anesthesia, including the addition of an intraoperative analgesic agent, can help minimize physiologic fluctuations during surgery.
Maintenance of normal body temperature minimizes cardiovascular and respiratory disturbances caused by anesthetic agents Dardai and Heavner ; Flegal et al. Fluid replacement may be a necessary component of intraoperative therapy depending on the duration and nature of the procedure. For aquatic species including amphibians , care should be taken to keep the skin surfaces moist and minimize drying during surgical procedures.
An important component of postsurgical care is observation of the animal and intervention as necessary during recovery from anesthesia and surgery Haskins and Eisele The intensity of monitoring will vary with the species and the procedure and may be greater during the immediate anesthetic recovery period. During this period, animals should be in a clean, dry, and comfortable area where they can be observed frequently by trained personnel. Particular attention should be given to thermoregulation, cardiovascular and respiratory function, electrolyte and fluid balance, and management of postoperative pain or discomfort.
Additional care may be warranted, including long-term administration of parenteral fluids, analgesics, and other drugs, as well as care of surgical incisions. Appropriate medical records should also be maintained. After recovery from anesthesia, monitoring is often less intense but should include attention to basic biologic functions of intake and elimination and to behavioral signs of postoperative pain, monitoring for postsurgical infections, monitoring of the surgical incision site for dehiscence, bandaging as appropriate, and timely removal of skin sutures, clips, or staples UFAW An integral component of veterinary medical care is prevention or alleviation of pain associated with procedural and surgical protocols.
Pain is a complex experience that typically results from stimuli that damage or have the potential to damage tissue; such stimuli prompt withdrawal and evasive action. The ability to experience and respond to pain is widespread in the animal kingdom and extends beyond vertebrates Sherwin Pain is a stressor and, if not relieved, can lead to unacceptable levels of stress and distress in animals. For these reasons, the proper use of anesthetics and analgesics in research animals is an ethical and scientific imperative.
Fundamental to the relief of pain in animals is the ability to recognize its clinical signs in specific species Bateson ; Carstens and Moberg ; Hawkins ; Holton et al. Species vary in their response to pain Baumans et al. Government Principles for the Utilization and Care of Vertebrate Animals Used in Testing, Research, and Training see Appendix B state that in general, unless the contrary is known or established, it should be considered that procedures that cause pain in humans may also cause pain in other animals IRAC Certain species-specific behavioral manifestations are used as indicators of pain or distress—for example, vocalization dogs , depression all , anorexia all , rapid or labored respiration rodents, birds, fish , lack of grooming mammals and birds , increased aggression mammals and birds , periocular and nasal porphyrin discharge rodents , abnormal appearance or posture all , and immobility all NRC , a.
However, some species may mask signs of pain until they are quite severe NRC a. It is therefore essential that personnel caring for and using animals be trained in species-specific and individual clinical, behavioral, physiologic, and biochemical indicators of well-being Dubner ; Karas ; Murrell and Johnson ; Rose ; Stoskopf ; Valverde and Gunkel Distress may be defined as an aversive state in which an animal fails to cope or adjust to various stressors with which it is presented. Both the duration and intensity of the state are important considerations when trying to prioritize attention to and treatment of animal distress.
For example, an injection requiring brief immobilization may produce acute stress lasting only seconds, while long-term individual housing of a social species in a metabolic cage may produce chronic distress. Implementation of clear, appropriate, and humane experimental endpoints for animals, combined with close observation during invasive periods of experimentation, will assist in minimizing distress experienced by animals used in research, teaching, testing, and production.
Recognition and Alleviation of Distress in Laboratory Animals NRC is a resource with important information about distress in experimental animals. The selection of appropriate analgesics and anesthetics should reflect professional veterinary judgment as to which best meets clinical and humane requirements as well as the needs of the research protocol.
The selection depends on many factors, such as the species, age, and strain or stock of the animal, the type and degree of pain, the likely effects of particular agents on specific organ systems, the nature and length of the surgical or pain-inducing procedure, and the safety of the agent, particularly if a physiologic deficit is induced by a surgical or other experimental procedure Kona-Boun et al.
Preemptive analgesia the administration of preoperative and intraoperative analgesia enhances intraoperative patient stability and optimizes postoperative care and well-being by reducing postoperative pain Coderre et al. Analgesia may be achieved through timely enteral or parenteral administration of analgesic agents as well as by blocking nociceptive signaling via local anesthetics e. Alleviation of chronic pain may be more challenging than postprocedural pain; commercially available opiate slow-release transdermal patches or implantable analgesic-containing osmotic minipumps may be useful for such relief.
Because of wide individual variation in response to analgesics, regardless of the initial plan for pain relief, animals should be closely monitored during and after painful procedures and should receive additional drugs, as needed, to ensure appropriate analgesic management Karas et al. Nonpharmacologic control of pain may be effective and should not be overlooked as an element of postprocedural or perioperative care for research animals NRC a ; Spinelli Appropriate nursing support may include a quiet, darkened recovery or resting place, timely wound or bandage maintenance, increased ambient warmth and a soft resting surface, rehydration with oral or parenteral fluids, and a return to normal feeding through the use of highly palatable foods or treats.
Most anesthetics cause a dose-dependent depression of physiologic homeostasis and the changes can vary considerably with different agents. The level of consciousness, degree of antinociception lack of response to noxious stimuli , and status of the cardiovascular, respiratory, musculoskeletal, and thermoregulatory systems should all be used to assess the adequacy of the anesthetic regimen.
Interpretation and appropriate response to the various parameters measured require training and experience with the anesthetic regimen and the species.
Loss of consciousness occurs at a light plane of anesthesia, before antinociception, and is sufficient for purposes of restraint or minor, less invasive procedures, but painful stimuli can induce a return to consciousness. Antinociception occurs at a surgical plane of anesthesia and must be ascertained before surgery. Individual animal responses vary widely and a single physiologic or nociceptive reflex response may not be adequate for assessing the surgical plane or level of analgesia Mason and Brown For anesthesia delivery, precision vaporizers and monitoring equipment e.
For injectable anesthestic protocols, specific reversal agents can minimize the incidence of some side effects related to prolonged recovery and recumbency. Guidelines for the selection and proper use of analgesic and anesthetic drugs should be developed and periodically reviewed and updated as standards and techniques are refined. Agents that provide anesthesia and analgesia must be used before their expiration dates and should be acquired, stored, their use recorded, and disposed of legally and safely.
Some classes of drugs such as sedatives, anxiolytics, and neuromuscular blocking agents may not provide analgesia but may be useful when used in combination with appropriate analgesics and anesthetics to provide balanced anesthesia and to minimize stress associated with perioperative procedures. Neuromuscular blocking agents e. It is imperative that any proposed use of neuromuscular blocking drugs be carefully evaluated by the veterinarian and IACUC to ensure the well-being of the animal.
Acute stress is believed to be a consequence of paralysis in a conscious state and it is known that humans, if conscious, can experience distress when paralyzed with these drugs NRC ; Van Sluyters and Oberdorfer If paralyzing agents are to be used, the appropriate amount of anesthetic should first be defined on the basis of results of a similar procedure using the anesthetic without a blocking agent NRC , , a. Euthanasia is the act of humanely killing animals by methods that induce rapid unconsciousness and death without pain or distress.
In evaluating the appropriateness of methods, some of the criteria that should be considered are ability to induce loss of consciousness and death with no or only momentary pain, distress, or anxiety; reliability; irreversibility; time required to induce unconsciousness; appropriateness for the species and age of the animal; compatibility with research objectives; and the safety of and emotional effect on personnel.
- Viral Pathogenesis and Immunity.
- El Caracter de un Metodista (Spanish) (Spanish Edition);
- Catch Me a Cowboy (Deep in the Heart of Texas Book 3)?
- Ghostgirl (Spanish Edition);
- Can exercise make you ill?.
Euthanasia may be planned and necessary at the end of a protocol or as a means to relieve pain or distress that cannot be alleviated by analgesics, sedatives, or other treatments. Criteria for euthanasia include protocol-specific endpoints such as degree of a physical or behavioral deficit or tumor size that will enable a prompt decision by the veterinarian and the investigator to ensure that the endpoint is humane and, whenever possible, the scientific objective of the protocol is achieved see Chapter 2.
Euthanasia should be carried out in a manner that avoids animal distress. Automated systems for controlled and staged delivery of inhalants may offer advantages for species killed frequently or in large numbers, such as rodents McIntyre et al. Special consideration should be given to euthanasia of fetuses and larval life forms depending on species and gestational age Artwohl et al. Generally, chemical agents e. Although carbon dioxide CO 2 is a commonly used method for rodent euthanasia, there is ongoing controversy about its aversive characteristics as an inhalant euthanasia agent.
This is an area of active research Conlee et al. The acceptability of CO 2 as a euthanasia agent for small rodents should be evaluated as new data become available. Furthermore, because neonatal rodents are resistant to the hypoxia-inducing effects of CO 2 and require longer exposure times to the agent Artwohl et al.
It is essential that euthanasia be performed by personnel skilled in methods for the species in question and in a professional and compassionate manner. Special attention is required to ensure proficiency when a physical method of euthanasia is used. Death must be confirmed by personnel trained to recognize cessation of vital signs in the species being euthanized. A secondary method of euthanasia e. Euthanizing animals is psychologically difficult for some animal care, veterinary, and research personnel, particularly if they perform euthanasia repetitively or are emotionally attached to the animals being euthanized Arluke ; NRC ; Rollin ; Wolfle When delegating euthanasia responsibilities, supervisors should be sensitive to this issue.
Turn recording back on. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. An adequate veterinary care program consists of assessment of animal well-being and effective management of animal procurement and transportation. Transportation of Animals Transportation of animals is governed by a number of US regulatory agencies and international bodies. Animal Biosecurity Animal biosecurity refers to all measures taken to identify, contain, prevent, and eradicate known or unknown infections that may cause clinical disease or alter physiologic and behavioral responses or otherwise make the animals unsuitable for research.
Quarantine and Stabilization Quarantine is the separation of newly received animals from those already in the facility, in a way that prevents potential spread of contaminants, until the health and possibly the microbial status of the newly received animals have been determined. Separation by Health Status and Species Physical separation of animals by species is recommended to prevent interspecies disease transmission and to eliminate the potential for anxiety and physiologic and behavioral changes due to interspecies conflict Arndt et al.
A few examples may serve as a guide in determining the need for separate housing by species: Helicobacter bilis can infect rats and mice and may induce clinical disease in both species Haines et al. Simian hemorrhagic fever Renquist and simian immunodeficiency virus Hirsch et al. The Guide is applicable only after the decision is made to use animals in research, teaching, or testing.
Decisions associated with the need to use animals are not within the purview of the Guide , but responsibility for animal well-being begins for the investigator with that decision. Additional responsibilities of the investigator, and other personnel, are elaborated in Chapter 1. The goal of this Guide is to promote the humane care of animals used in biomedical and behavioral research, teaching, and testing; the basic objective is to provide information that will enhance animal well-being, the quality of biomedical research, and the advancement of biologic knowledge that is relevant to humans or animals.
The use of animals as experimental subjects in the 20 th century has contributed to many important advances in scientific and medical knowledge Leader and Stark Although scientists have also developed nonanimal models for research, teaching, and testing NRC ; see Appendix A , "Alternatives" , these models often cannot completely mimic the complex human or animal body, and continued progress in human and animal health and well-being requires the use of living animals. Nevertheless, efforts to develop and use scientifically valid alternatives, adjuncts, and refinements to animal research should continue.
In this Guide , laboratory animals include any vertebrate animal e. When appropriate, exceptions or specific emphases. The Guide does not specifically address farm animals used in agricultural research or teaching, wildlife and aquatic animals studied in natural settings, or invertebrate animals used in research; however, many of the general principles in this Guide apply to these species and situations.
This Guide endorses the responsibilities of investigators as stated in the U. Interpretation and application of those principles and this Guide require professional knowledge. In summary, the principles encourage. Design and performance of procedures on the basis of relevance to human or animal health, advancement of knowledge, or the good of society. Avoidance or minimization of discomfort, distress, and pain in concert with sound science. Provision of appropriate animal husbandry directed and performed by qualified persons.
Conduct of experimentation on living animals only by or under the close supervision of qualified and experienced persons. In general, the principles stipulate responsibilities of investigators, whose activities regarding use of animals are subject to oversight by an institutional animal care and use committee IACUC.
Looking for other ways to read this?
References in this Guide provide the. Users are reminded that the Guide is written for a diverse group of national and international institutions and organizations. The Guide charges users of research animals with the responsibility of achieving specified outcomes but leaves it up to them how to accomplish these goals. This ''performance" approach is desirable because many variables such as the species and previous history of the animals, facilities, expertise of the people, and research goals often make prescriptive "engineering" approaches impractical and unwarranted.
Engineering standards are sometimes useful to establish a baseline, but they do not specify the goal or outcome such as well-being, sanitation, or personnel safety in terms of measurable criteria as do performance standards. The engineering approach does not provide for interpretation or modification in the event that acceptable alternative methods are available or unusual circumstances arise.
Performance standards define an outcome in detail and provide criteria for assessing that outcome, but do not limit the methods by which to achieve that outcome. This performance approach requires professional input and judgment to achieve outcome goals. Optimally, engineering and performance standards are balanced, thereby providing standards while allowing flexibility and judgment based on individual situations.
Scientists, veterinarians, technicians, and others have extensive experience and information covering many of the topics discussed in this Guide. Research on laboratory animal management continues to generate scientific information that should be used in evaluating performance and engineering standards. For some issues, insufficient information is available, and continued research into improved methods of animal care and use is needed.
The Guide is deliberately written in general terms so that its recommendations can be applied in the diverse institutions and settings that produce or use animals for research, teaching, and testing; generalizations and broad recommendations are imperative in such a document. This approach requires that users, IACUCs, veterinarians, and producers use professional judgment in making specific decisions regarding animal care and use.
Because this Guide is written in general terms, IACUCs have a key role in interpretation, oversight, and evaluation of institutional animal care and use programs. The question frequently arises as to how the words must and should are used in the Guide and how IACUCs should interpret their relative priority. In general, the verb must is used for broad programmatic or basic aspects that the Committee to Revise the Guide considers are imperative. The verb should is used as a strong recommendation for achieving a goal. However, the committee recognizes that individual circumstances might justify an alternative strategy.
Uses of farm animals in research, teaching, and testing are often separated into biomedical uses and agricultural uses because of government regulations AWRs , institutional policies, administrative structure, funding sources, or user goals. That separation has led to a dual system with different criteria for evaluating protocols and standards of housing and care for animals of the same species on the basis of perceived biomedical or agricultural research objectives Stricklin and Mench For some studies, this separation is clear.
For example, animal models of human diseases, organ transplantation, and major surgery are considered biomedical uses; and studies on food and fiber production, such as feeding trials, are usually considered agricultural uses. However, the separation often is not clear, as in the case of some nutrition and disease studies.
Administrators, regulators, and IACUCs often face a dilemma in deciding how to handle such studies Stricklin and others The use of farm animals in research should be subject to the same ethical considerations as the use of other animals in research, regardless of an investigator's research objectives or funding source Stricklin and others However, differences in research goals lead to fundamental differences between biomedical and agricultural research.
Agricultural research often necessitates that animals be managed according to contemporary farm-production practices for research goals to be reached Stricklin and Mench For example, natural environmental conditions might be desirable for agricultural research, whereas control of environmental conditions to minimize variation might be desirable in biomedical research Tillman Housing systems for farm animals used in biomedical research might or might not differ from those in agricultural research.
Animals used in either biomedical or agricultural research can be housed in cages or stalls or in paddocks or pastures Tillman Some agricultural studies need uniform conditions to minimize environmental variability, and some biomedical studies are conducted in farm settings.
Thus, the protocol, rather than the category of research, should determine the setting farm or laboratory. Decisions on categorizing research uses of farm animals and defining standards for their care and use should be based on user goals, protocols, and concern for animal well-being and should be made by the IACUC. Regardless of the category of research, institutions are expected to provide oversight of all research animals and ensure that their pain and distress is minimized. This Guide applies to farm animals used in biomedical research, including those maintained in typical farm settings.
For such animals in a farm setting, the Guide for the Care and Use of Agricultural Animals in Agricultural Research and Teaching , or revisions thereof, is a useful resource. Additional information regarding facilities and management of farm animals in an agricultural setting can be obtained from the Midwest Plan Service's Structures and Environ-. A species not commonly used in biomedical research is sometimes the animal model of choice because of its unique characteristics.
For example, hibernation can be studied only in species that hibernate. An appropriate environment should be provided for nontraditional species, and for some species it might be necessary to approximate the natural habitat. Expert advice on the natural history and behavior of nontraditional species should be sought when such animals are to be introduced into a research environment. Because of the large number of nontraditional species and their varied requirements, this Guide cannot provide husbandry details appropriate to all such species. However, several scientific organizations have developed guides for particular species of nontraditional animals e.
A partial list of sources is available in Appendix A. Biomedical and behavioral investigations occasionally involve observation or use of vertebrate animals under field conditions. Although some of the recommendations listed in this volume are not applicable to field conditions, the basic principles of humane care and use apply to the use of animals living in natural conditions. Investigators conducting field studies with animals should assure their IACUC that collection of specimens or invasive procedures will comply with state and federal regulations and this Guide.